SAC 1682-1796
<>1680:1730; Southern
New World
colonies (future USA) | In this half century, black slaves became the backbone of
agricultural economy (in connection with growing world market for tobacco and an
expanding global slave trade over the
previous century)
- Slavery was not the only form of bound labor in the New World [USA]. Indentured, or bonded, servants were of near equal importance
to slaves in the earlier history of labor. These were European immigrants who, in
return for passage to America, bound themselves to work there for a number of
years, after which time they were to be freed. Some have said that the practice
was closely related to the tradition of apprenticeship, in which a youth was
assigned to work for a master in a certain trade and in return was taught the
skills of the trade. But a better relationship is to slavery or serfdom.
Indentured servitude was a form of bound labor in which the time duration of the
condition was clearer and generally briefer
- In much the same way, convicts were
an important source of colonial labor; thousands of English "criminals" were
sentenced to labor in the colonies for a specified period, after which time they
might be freed
- Gottlieb Mittelberger came to Pennsylvania from Germany in 1750. He later
published a description of his experience as indentured servant
[TXT]. Mittelberger fared better than
most. His "serfdom" was as schoolmaster and organist in Philadelphia. He
returned to Germany in 1754
- "Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch, French, and English colonists resorted to
varying forms of peonage and indentured servitude before settling on slavery as
the institution most suitable to developing the economic potential of newly
acquired lands in the Americas" [Kolchin:2]
- Slavery and other forms of bound labor in colonial possessions partially filled the
needs of an increasingly serf-free western and central Europe. "Liberal"
progress at home, unliberal colonial imperialism abroad was becoming a
"Western" pattern
- The 17th century was the century in which there was a thriving global market for bound human labor
-
And not
just in USA and Russia. North Africa in that century held nearly one million Europeans in slavery [2004no16:TLS:33]
- Slavery and serfdom were disappearing in the domestic life of of west Europe
- But east Europe was another matter. In Russia serfdom and the power of
noble "serf owners" flourished in this half century (1680-1730)
- Serfdom
waxed in Russia in just those decades when slavery and indentured bound labor
waxed in the New World, and bound labor declined in west Europe
\\
- Kolchin, 1-17 provides the best brief combined
account of the origins of slavery and serfdom
- Steven Hahn's The Political Worlds of Slavery and Freedom
(2009) argues that the righteous distinction drawn between the "free" North and "slave" South is much
exaggerated. The sharp geographical line is "illusory and indistinct". Slavery thrived in the north,
and lived on longer than our text-book histories like to admit (in New Jersey until 1860). Northerners
generally observed the Fugitive Slave Law which extended the power of slaveholders and slave-catchers far
into the North. And, then, just how "free" were the free blacks of the North?
Hahn may exaggerate the number and the meaning of manumission (liberation of
slaves) in the South. But there is some wisdom in his suggestion that it is best
to think of USA having a variety of "geopolitical zones" of slavery and freedom
where freedom and bondage were balanced in many different ways
- Seymour Drescher, Abolition: A History
of Slavery and Anti-slavery (2009) argues that only
some 5 per cent of slaves carried across the Atlantic wound up in North America.
The rest were placed in Caribbean or Latin America. As late as the 1770s,
exports from North America, expressed in per-capita terms of the white population,
amounted to only 2% of exports from the Caribbean. The traditional view of New World
settlement as essentially a European achievement needs modifying to take account of
the fact that over the 300 years up to 1820, Africans arriving in the New World were
five times as numerous as Europeans. "Europeans provided the initiative, capital and
transport, but the driving force behind the entire enterprise was was black
slavery." [2010fe05:TLS:9, reviewers comment] Reviewer continues = "To no small
degree the prosperity of early modern Europe -- and so, by extension, our own
well-being today -- derives from the involuntary labor of African slaves." [We might ask,
with no grouchy intent, couldn't an identical argument be made about entrepreneurs', capitalists'
and owners' relationship to the millions of wage-laborers in the subsequent industrial
revolution? And, by extension, could not an identical argument be made about the relationship
of "Western prosperity" to the energies and natural resources of the imperialized world?]. Drescher
makes a vital interpretive point about slavery and the anti-slavery
movement =
- Progressive Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries made an essential distinction between what
happened at the domestic nation-state level and what happened "abroad".
Progressive anti-slavery at home did not compel anti-slavery on the world
market, especially as "globalization" of markets came to dominate the 18th and
19th century world. For this reason, much the same can been said about the
simultaneous expansion of Adam Smithian doctrines [ID] within the domestic
laissez-faire economies in modernizing European nation states. The expansion of
liberal doctrines at home in no way restrained the imposition of utterly opposite doctrines
abroad. European enterprise in the wider world in these decades bore little resemblance to
laissez-faire. The contrasts between Euro-American liberties and Afro-American slavery,
and between domestic liberalization and global imperialism, present us one of the great
conundrums of the modern European -- "The Western" -- experience
\\
*2009de17:NYR:72, David Brion Davis, "The Universal Attractions of Slavery"
[TXT of first 3 paragraphs] The essay goes on to emphasize the vital
historical fact that slavery (quite unlike serfdom) was economically viable, and
the essay ends with sorrowful emphasis on the rebirth globally of bound labor in
the past decade or two.
(EG=G/W.TXT
about contemporary Dubai. F/this is a lie/ and read the 16 short paragraphs
headed "Hidden in plain view". Dubai is the functional headquarters of the "US"
transnational corporation Halliburton [ID])
*--Robert William Fogel and Stanley L. Engerman,
Time
on the Cross: The Economics of American Negro Slavery (1974), chapter one "The International Context of
U.S. Slavery":13-37
*--George M. Fredrickson,
White
Supremacy: A Comparative Study in American & South African History (1981):3-28
<>1682ja12: Mestnichestvo [ancestral hierarchy
among noble state servitors to the tsarist throne in Moscow] was
abolished [VSB,1:238-40]
- Muscovite mestnichestvo was related to, but
not to be confused with, Kievan mestnichestvo before the Mongol invasion.
This much older Kievan mestnichestvo system
regulated relationships among several main fortress and trade cities and their
"contract" princes
- As Moscow power and procedures evolved, the word "mestnichestvo" had
taken on a different meaning, one that signified a
hierarchy among noble votchinniki [patrimonial princes], especially the boyar
elite in the deliberative assembly known as the "Boyar Duma"
[ID]. Muscovite mestnichestvo measured
and acknowledged prestige and precedence at the court of the Moscow grand prince
- Abolition of Muscovite mestnichestvo strengthening the hand of the tsar as he
sought to appoint noble government servitors as he wished, according to his
needs and interests rather than in accordance with rank among aristocratic
elites. It also foretold the
demise of the Boyar Duma. Indeed, the decline of votchinniki served the interests
of pomeshchiki, but the larger trend was toward the eventual
abolition, for all practical purposes, of this two-tiered medieval elite formation
- GO 1722ja24:Table of Ranks
\\
*--Kliuchevskii,4(4) reviews the Muscovite
service-based class structure
*--Blum:137-8 describes the mestnichestvo system
<>1682:Moscow Slavonic-Greko-Latin Academy founded,
representing spread of a Church renaissance, the Orthodox experience of the
"great spiritual re-armament" that gripped all Europe and which, for Slavs, began at the
Kiev Academy [VSB,1:248]
<>1682ap14:Old-Ritualist Archpriest Avvakum burned at stake on
orders of Orthodox Church
<>1682ap27:Russian tsar Fedor died. Several weeks of disorder
followed before Sofiia was proclaimed Regent, ruling in the place of the two young heirs,
Peter and Ivan
\\
*--Bushkovitch:80-125 (on era of Fedor)
<>1682my15:my19;
Strel'tsy [Musketeers]
[ID] rebelled [VSB,1:240-1]
*--The great Boyar diplomat Artamon Matveev was killed in this rebellion
\\
*--Bushkovitch:49-80 (on Matveev and the
rebellion)
<>1682je:1689se;
Sofiia reigned as Regent for youthful co-tsars Ivan V (her brother) & Peter I
(her half-brother) for seven years
<>1683:Vienna, capital city of the
diminished Austrian Empire, survived Ottoman Turkish siege
with difficulty
<>1685:Siberian Amur River valley | Albazin
ostrog
[frontier fortress] created
*--Tensions between the Chinese Empire and Russia
mounted in SE Siberia
<>1686:Poland and Russia (with
Vasilii Golitsyn playing key
role) settled long conflict. Kiev & Smolensk now formally within the boundaries of
Russian tsarist authority
*--Russia sought quiet along two of its three main
imperialist
frontiers (westward [a European empire] and eastward [a north Asian and new-world empire]) in
order to concentrate on the third (southward [a Central Asian empire])
\\
Main Periods of [Polish] History [in
Polish]
<>1687:England | Isaac Newton published
Philosophiae naturalis principia
mathematica
- Newtonian discoveries & theories (e.g., gravity, calculus)
were fundamental contributions
to the "scientific revolution" and the broader and startling shifts in
world view subsumed under the term "the Enlightenment" (the age of rationalism
and empiricism)
- A few years later, on a wild tour through western European capitals
[ID], Russian tsar Peter I arrived
in London and went straight to a meeting, not with English royalty or other grandees of the British realm, but with
the scientist Isaac Newton
\\
*--Wagar on rationalism in the Enlightenment
[TXT]
<>1689ja:1689fe; English Convention Parliament
issued two declarations that constitute what the English like to call "The
Glorious Revolution" =
(1) Parliament declared
That king James II, having endeavored to subvert the
constitution of the kingdom by breaking the original contract between king and
people, and by the advice of Jesuits and other wicked persons having violated
the fundamental laws, and having withdrawn himself out of the kingdom, has
abdicated the government, and that the throne is vacant
(2) Parliament issued "The Declaration of Rights" which established the "true, ancient, and indubitable rights of the people of this
realm", especially that any law issued or suspended without the consent of Parliament was henceforth illegal
[TXT]
<>1689au27:Siberia | Nerchinsk Treaty
signed by Russia & China [DMR2:331-3]
- Fedor Alekseevich Golovin was the Russian ambassador
- Event described by Jesuit translator in Chinese service, Thomas Pereira [Lensen,Eastward:47-9
quotes from Sebes, Jesuits]
- Until now, Russian expansion in Siberia met no serious resistance. Now Russia came
against a powerful third party, China
- The indigenous, contiguous or continental phase of
Russian expansion temporarily came to an end in far SE Siberia
- Russia conceded
to China the left and right bank watersheds of the Amur River basin
[g] and the Ili River
system in Central Asia (modern-day Kazakhstan) [g]
- Chinese power extended into Outer Mongolia
- Nerchinsk Treaty honored until 1843
- "Bouncing" off China, Russia now looked harder
at NE Siberia and across the North Pacific, but very
tentatively, with no urgent plans
- Urgency seemed to come from the south. Russia
would not for a century attempt anything like the other contemporary
European overseas corporations, but its
southern ambitions were a natural extension of long term trends of
frontier and imperialist expansion
\\
*--Bushkovitch:213-55 (on Golovin and other
early favorites of youthful Peter I)
*--Mark Mancall,
Russia and China: Their Diplomatic Relations to 1728 (1971)
<>1689se:1695;
Regency of Sofiia
replaced by regency of Peter I’s
mother
<>1690mr17:Patriarch of the Russian Orthodox Church Joachim issued testament [VSB,2:361-3]
<>1692:New World colonies (future USA)
MA Salem witch trials targeted certain women accused of being in league with Satan;
result: a score of "witches" executed
<>1694:1696;
tsar Peter I and Ivan V co-tsars
for two years
under regency of Peter’s mother
- 1694:Peter began Russian navy
[W] He was looking
south toward the dominions of the Ottoman Turks and their allies, the
Crimean Tatars
- 1695:1696; Azov, port at the mouth of Don River [g], captured in two campaigns
against Ottoman Turks, but navy weak and success very unstable
- Folksong celebrated the event [WAL:176-7]
\\
*--B. H. Sumner,
Peter the Great and the Ottoman Empire
*--Hughes:22-6
<>1696:1725;
tsar Peter I assumed sole authority upon death of Ivan V and reigned for 29 years
<>1697:Siberia | Russian frontier/imperialist expansion to Kamchatka Peninsula
[g] [DC&V,2 (documents cover 1700:1797)]
- Vladimir Vasilievich Atlasov [Volodimer Otlasov],
a Cossack or Ukrainian of Ustiug peasant origins, set out for Siberia where he became
one of Russia's toughest and most resolute explorers. In Yakutsk [Sakha]
[g] he registered to
serve with the Cossacks until he was 50 years old
- 1695:Atlasov was named prikashchik
[overseer, technical administrator, officer of a Prikaz]
of Anadyr ostrog [frontier fortress] with credentials of broad and loose implication
- On
the basis of information from a Cossack named Luk Morozko,
Atlasov led a hundred or so indigenous yasak natives against Koriak ostrozhki [little
ostrogs] and set the Russian Orthodox cross on Kanuch R. banks [BrE,3:432]
- "Because this venture was richly rewarding, beyond anyone’s expectations, the
government sanctioned it immediately. Thus there was created a solid link between private
and national interests. While at time these interests were at odds, for the most part they
cooperated very closely, not only in the Russian drive across northern Asia, but also in
the North Pacific and in North America" [Dmytryshyn"Russian Expansion:7]
- 1700:Siberia, Yakutsk | Atlasov reported to Moscow on
Kuril Islands [g] and their proximity to Japan [SIE,1:926] Atlasov had come across Japanese sailor-adventurer Dembei whose vessel was cast ashore [KEJ,6:340| SHJ,3:201-2| Beasley,MHJ:39-40] This is 1st of
at least sixteen ships cast upon Russian shores [by accident or design] over the
next century & half, and a source of quickening contact and understanding
between Russia and Japan
- 1711:Kamchatka | Atlasov was killed by workers fed up with his cruelties
- Atlasov might stand for the
hundreds of nameless Cossack peasant adventurers,
active
for a century, since the time of Yermak, a "motley band of restless
riffraff", Muscovite and non-Muscovite, who crossed the Urals, defeated the forces of
Siberian khan Kuchum, Imposed payment of yasak [tribute; sometimes
"iasak"] on the indigenous peoples they encountered, and laid Muscovy's claim to
their territories in Siberia
\\
*--SIE,1:926
*--Kisaki Tyohei,
Eiju-maru Rosia Hyoryu Ki (TOK:1982):20-25, cited in
Togawa,"Russian and Slavic":4. BBL/Plummer]
<>1697mr:1698su; Russia sent a large delegation, "the Grand Embassy",
to visit west European capitals [g], led by Lefort and including tsar Peter as lowly ensign
- The Grand Embassy toured the German, Dutch and English speaking capitals
of northern Europe in pursuit of allies against the Ottoman Turks
- He also intended to observe, learn, and recruit
[CF: second great tour of Europe]
- Peter began construction of a navy intended in future for securing the Black
Sea and Crimea [map]. He ordered thousands of workers to begin construction of a
canal
linking the Volga and Don rivers
- Peter's own 1717 version of this sojourn [VSB,2:313]
- Sophia of Hanover described Peter's visit [VSB,2:313-]
- In Vienna, about to head south to Venice, tsar Peter got word of yet another
Strel’tsy revolt and dashed home to Moscow [G/1698su]
- To the east, expansion slackened while more peaceful trade-related
relationships flourished
- Russian attention shifted to the southern and western frontiers. These
two
directions of Russian imperialist expansion (south and
west) still closely entangled. Russian ambitions or defense needs to the south
required peace and cooperation along western borders, but "The West" was not
going to grant that to Russia
\\
*--The English historian, long a Professor at Oxford University, B.H. Sumner,
in Peter the Great and the Emergence of Russia,
wrote the following about what Peter I learned and didn't learn from his Grand Embassy =
He returned [...] with the ineffaceable impression of what wealth, trade, manufactures, and knowledge
meant to a country in terms of power and properity. He had known at second hand that Muscovy was backward [NB!]
in these respects, but his journey to the West [NB!] was a turning-point, in that now he had personal,
concrete experience of the material superiority of the West [NB!]. At the same time he had an equally
strong conviction that Russians could learn, and learn rapidly, to match the West [NB!]. He did not
explore the springs [NB!] and motive forces [NB!] of this western achievement [NB! not now
capitalized]; he did not seek to understand the workings of financial, political, or administrative
institutions; and he had little or no conception of the slow and varied stages by which England or Holland had grown
to be what they were. What never left his mind was the forest of masts on the watersides of Amsterdam and London,
symbols of enriching trade reaching out to the Indies and all parts of the world; the clusters of busy towns, the creation of that
independent, middle class, rich in invention industry, and initiative, which his own country so much lacked.
<>1698su: Strel'tsy [Musketeers] rebelled [DIR2:1-12
| DIR3:1-13]
causing Peter to respond in a decisive and cruel fashion, a heavy blow against
the old guard of the Muscovite military
- Peter's most trusted associate Fedor
Yur'evich Romodanovskii became the main policeman and executioner, moving into a
more or less permanent role as "assistant tsar" and head of security.
Patrick Gordon's diary chronicled his central role in military suppression of
the Strel'tsy revolt
[TXT]
- 1698se05:1699fe04; Austrian imperial envoy to Moscow Johann George Korb
described Strel'tsy suppression and other court events [VSB,2:314-16]
- The institution of elite Strel'tsy
palace guards, after 150 years of existence, faded from the scene
<>1699:tsar Peter I gave Nev'ianskii
zavod
[factory] in
Urals to
Nikita Demidov
*--Demidov was a famous Tula area
blacksmith, a commoner whose talents appealed to Peter
*--Demidov took Peter's
grants of mines and metallurgical factories in Siberia,
developed them, became rich, and was ennobled by Peter
<>1699:1700; First
intense period of Peter's radical "dress code" and grooming laws
- Peter
personally and publicly sheared old-fashioned beards. Romodanovskii was
subjected to this humiliation
- Peter ordered elites to remove the old
long-sleeved Russian costumes and to dress in the Hungarian or German fashion.
He himself wore "French" clothes
- In these years Russian subjects were fascinated and appalled by this outrageous side of
tsar Peter. Street-sheets portrayed the shaving of beards. These sheets were called
Lubki [lubok in singular, meaning a broadside, chapbook, print, or
advertisement based on popular imagery]
[pix]
- Peter's dress-code and grooming laws threatened traditional identity as
it forced leading figures to change their whole appearance. Note that Peter
lacked any serious interest in how merchants, peasants, or other lesser urbanites dressed or
groomed themselves. These laws aimed at state-servitor elites. So, another
effect followed = The extreme gap between elites and the great majority of the
population was
exacerbated, and the great majority interpreted Peter's secular modernization as sacrilege
- The wide-spread rumor that the real tsar Peter had
been murdered while in Europe on the Grand Embassy [ID], and that the anti-Christ or
Devil had replaced him, seemed confirmed in these superficial but shocking
policies. Peter was toying with appearances, yes, but this was a highly
ritualistic environment, made more explosive by the corrosive effects of the now
40-year-old Raskol [Schism] and the
anti-modernist fears of bearded and traditionally dressed
Old-Ritualists. The groundwork was laid for the broadly held Russian cultural
presumption that, while Moscow was the seat of holy Russia, the new seat of
ruling power, St. Petersburg, which was founded by Peter I in the
next few years, was not Russian; it was an alien or foreign city filled with
alien or foreign folk
- Peter's reforms had a definite "everyday life" quality to them, but their effects were
profound even when they involved the apparent superficialities of dress and
grooming [CF=1687:Andrei Bezobrazov's wife wrote him letters, revealing aspects of
everyday life and the experiences of an educated Russian woman [KRR:213-6]
- Petrine
transformation documents = [VSB,2:363-8]
\\
*--Hughes:248-98 (monarchical everyday life),
357-90 (Peter's personality)
*--Florinsky,1(14) deals with Peter's administrative
reforms
*--Claes Peterson, Peter the Great's Administrative and Judicial Reforms: Swedish
Antecedents and the Process of Reception
*--Marc Raeff, ed.,
Peter the Great: Reformer or Revolutionary?
*--B. H. Sumner,
Peter the Great and the Emergence of Russia [DK131.59]
*--Kazimierz Waliszewski,
Peter the Great
<>1700:Moscow | At the death of Adrian,
Patriarch of the
Russian Orthodox Church, tsar Peter refused to allow appointment
of replacement
*--In this year tsar Peter did reform the Russian calendar, replacing the old
Orthodox calendar with the Julian Calendar [DIR3:14]. Now
secular Russia was at least in the same
century and almost always in the same year as the other European nations. While the Julian
Calendar was more in line with European norms, Europe was at this time moving away from
the Julian Calendar in favor of the Gregorian. Every century the Julian Calendar fell one
day behind the Gregorian, and as of 1700 it was eleven days behind [more
on Russian calendar]
<>1700:1721;
Sweden and Russia fought the "Great Northern war" for 21 years
-
Two young monarchs, Charles XII & Peter I, and their
whole nations wasted themselves in a struggle that was to compromise the ambitions of each
nation
- More broadly the struggle embittered Russian-west European relations for
decades and hindered modernizing reforms in both regions
- Sweden
suffered the most severe damage
- Poland was caught between and declined [g]
\\
*--Kliuchevskii,4(3) summarized the diplomatic and
military situation as a result of "Western" aggression = "Peter found himself in
an awkward situation. His work at Voronezh had been completely destroyed; the fleet which had cost so much
in money and effort, and which had been intended for the Black Sea, was left to rot in the ports of Azov. He had been unable to
acquire Kerch, and was not firmly established in the Crimea. The
canal which
was to have linked the Volga with the Don, and which had been started by thousands of workmen, was
abandoned [not to be completed until 1952,
nearly 160 years later!]; the newly awakened aspirations of the Balkan
Christians were ignored [and this situation festered for more than a century and
played its role in causing WW1]; the security of southern Russia, which was
menaced by the Turks, was neglected. Peter had suddenly to change fronts and
move from the south to the Baltic, where a coalition against Sweden had been
formed. The latest combination of events in Europe threw him, like a skittle in
a game of bowls [a pin struck by a bowling ball], from the mouth of the Don to
Narva and the Neva, where absolutely nothing had been organized" [61, see 151
for detail on the Volga-Don Canal project and 152 for information on the
Neva-Volga project]. Kliuchevskii helps us see just how the Great Northern War undermined Russian hopes in the south and distracted
Russian imperialist expansion
from its opportunities to the east
*--Hughes:26-57
*--Christopher Duffy,
Russia's Military Way to the West: Origins and Nature of
Russia's Military power, 1700-1800
*--English-language website of the Russian Navy explains the role of sea
power in the Great Northern War and the naval legacy of Peter I
[W]
<>1702:Moscow | Japanese castaway Dembei met tsar Peter, who
greeted and hired him to teach Japanese
- Peter ordered collection of information on Japan
for purposes of expanded trade
- For the next quarter-century, Cossacks,
hunters and government agents searched Kuril Islands looking for Japan [KEJ,6:340]
- Increased frequency of Russian-Japanese ventures [SHJ,3:202]
- No doubt the full story of Russian/Japanese interaction was not recorded in
surviving documents because the stingy Russian mercantilist approach to
Siberian expansion made unofficial acts of exploration and trade illegal
- In the
same way, Japanese "National Seclusion" policy, their
own form of mercantilist control over international
commerce, restricted independent Japanese adventurers
- These two national policies punished individual efforts to profit from
an opening frontier in far eastern Siberia
- Russian and Japanese
entrepreneurs had to be cagey and secretive [Bychkov lecture]
<>1702de16:Saint Petersburg Vedomosti [News] became
first Russian newspaper [BL&T:50f]
- Russia now
took its place among other European peoples entering the era of print-media =
- 1556+:Italy | Venetian city officials posted Notizie scritte which
were later printed and sold for a small coin called gazzetta, an early
forerunning of the newspaper
- 1622:1641; English writer Nathaniel Butter published Weekly Newes, but it was
suppressed in times of trouble [ID]
- 1690s:Whig [name of a liberal political association] Junto
[W]
- 1702:+; England | First daily newspaper, Daily Courant
- 1709:1712; England | Joseph Addison and Richard Steele published popular
and controversial newspapers Tatler and Spectator. From the
very beginning journalism was associated either with official propaganda or,
more characteristically, with the rise of independent public opinion. The
printing press was the natal technology which gave birth to modern civil
society. Addison and Steele gathered associates and engaged in various forms of
publicly relevant sociability, not in churches or chanceries, not in the salons
of private homes, but in taverns and clubs ("public places" or "pubs"). They were active
in a volunteer association that called itself the Kit-Cat Club (Kit-Kat Club)
[ID] Addison was the son of
an Anglican clergyman, but he now set off on a very modern and secular career
- 1709:LND| Edward Ward,
Secret History of Clubs
- 1713:LND| Whig Junto in English Parliament
[W]
\\
*1872:LND| John Timbs,
Clubs and Club Life in London with Anecdotes of Its
Famous Coffee-Houses, Hostelries, and Taverns from the Seventeenth Century to
the Present Time, pp. 47-53 and 511-12
*--On coffee houses
[W]
Petersburg | The Stock-Exchange embankment on the Neva River
<>1703:Saint Petersburg declared the new city to be the new
capital of a new Empire
[W]
VIDEOTAPE
*--Tsar Peter I shifted from the old heartland capital Moscow to the shores of the Gulf of
Finland and fast by the Baltic Sea [g]. Peter opened his "window to the West", and
the Petrine transformation was in full swing [DIR2:12-21]
\\
Hughes:203-48
<>1705:+; Bashkir steppes again animated by a movement to
promote Muslim grandeur
<>1707mr25:Russian decree against peasant serfs fleeing
their villages and obligations [DIR2:125 |
DIR3:139]
- On military recruitment in villages [VSB,2:327-8]
- Peter endorsed the most severe serfdom in all of Europe, that found on the estates
where Germanic Baltic baronial power lorded over indigenous Estonian and Latvian villagers.
Peter sought to lure these colonial feudal lords away from Sweden or Poland [VSB,2:334]
- There is some reason to believe that Peter did not intend to build his new empire on
the basis of serf labor. As the Great Northern War wound down, he
sought to limit noble abuse of peasants [VSB,2:354]
- However, Petrine transformation required mobilization of limited resources,
and that forced harsh measures. Conditions worsened for serfs
<>1709je27:Russia, on the southern frontier (Ukraine), 200
miles SE from Kiev (!!) [g], near the city Poltava
| Russia delivered decisive
military defeat to invading Swedish armies
- Swedish King Charles XII fled to Turkey
- Russian-Ukrainian relations with Ukrainian cossacks strained. Old ally of Russia,
Cossack
Ivan Mazepa, Hetman from 1687-1708, defected to Turkey
- So, Russian-Turkish
relationship heated up [VSB,2:330-6]
- Wasteful war of imperialist expansion was not settled
for another 12 years
\\
*--Ukrainian encyclopedia entry on Mazepa
[W]
<>1710:English envoy Charles Whitworth described Peter [VSB,2:316].
Other first-hand accounts [321-6]
<>1711:London | "South Sea Co." was
chartered
- This corporation was capitalized with massive shareholding initiative
and governmental subsidies
- Managers of the company took the capital and
invested in whaling ships
- Over the next half century, they failed as whalers,
but they did help extend British imperial authority over the globe
- Huge
mercantilist overseas corporate organizational design did not seem to suit the
needs of the whaling industry, here at the dawn of the age of energy politics
- However, the corporation was to play some role in the international struggle for
dominance in the whale-oil era
<>1711fe22:Russian tsar Peter I, setting off to the
south on a campaign against Swedish King Charles XII and his new Turkish ally, issued a
short ukaz. "WE appoint the governing Senate to administer in
OUR absence" [VSB,2:336-7 | Russian TXT PiB 11,1:100
| DIR3:15]
<>1713:1714; Kuril Islands (stretching out to sea from the southern tip
of the Kamchatka Peninsula toward the NE corner of the Japanese island Hokkaido
[g]) explored by Russian adventurers. They made land
fall on Sakhalin Island
[Sansom,WWJ:212]
<>1713:Russian political-economist Fedor Saltykov wrote
Propozitsii
[Proposition]
<>1714:Saint Petersburg | Peter I decrees on building of new
capital [BL&T:16]
<>1714fe14:By
decree, Peter I made education compulsory for the Russian nobility [DIR3:15]
- 1714mr23:Decree on primogeniture [DIR3:16].
Owners of heritable property in land had to pass
it on to a single heir designated by the owner. In other words, Peter sought to bring an
end to ruinous inheritance practices among landed gentry which divided estates among all
heirs, slowly whittling them down below a size that could support the nobility.
Inheritance by the oldest son (rarely, oldest daughter) is called
"primogeniture", a practice common among European landed elites, but
extremely rare in the Russian tradition [EG], at least until tsar Peter I
- Peter sought also to encourage "second sons" ( or daughters, for that matter) to
seek their fortune elsewhere than on the rural estate, perhaps in the technical
fields and other useful pursuits so much needed in a modernizing Russian empire
(e.g., navigation [DIR3:18])
- 1715fa:1716wi; Peter corresponded with his own
reluctant son Aleksei, calling on him to show more resolve to learn the martial
and other arts and skills necessary for the modern monarch. Son Aleksei
continued to drag his feet, and this at just the time Peter was gearing up for
his second European tour and preparing a new round of extensive change [DIR3:24-28]
- Petrine transformation reached into the Russian
social structure, but no clear Petrine economic policy
yet emerged, aside from those designed to meet the pressing contingencies of war
<>1716fe:1717oc; tsar Peter I made his
second European tour (CF:
first great trip abroad)
*--Tour lasted one year and nine
months! The first months were in German-speaking central Europe, the winter of
1716-1717 in The Netherlands and surrounding lowlands, and the spring in France
<>1716:London | John Perry published
The State of Russia under the Present Czar
[sic] covering events and personalities between 1689-1712,
including information on the Volga-Don Canal project [VSB,2:316-20 |
RRC2]
<>1717:Russian Vice-Chancellor (high diplomatic post)
Petr Shafirov, who was a close confidant of
Peter I, published
Discourse Concerning the First Causes of the War between Sweden and
Russia
<>1717de11:tsar Peter I,
fresh from his second European tour, decreed new imperial administrative
reforms, restructuring government under nine colleges (colleges
in this case meant something like "ministries", suggesting systematic definition
of governmental functions and distribution of responsibilities out to various
appropriate departments) [VSB,2:337-8] The colleges
were =
Foreign Affairs
State Revenues
Justice
State Accounting
Military
Admiralty
Commerce
State Expenses
Mines and Manufacture
*--Detailed webpage
<>1718je:Tsar Peter I authorized (and probably took part in) torture and
death of his son Aleksei [DIR2:25-30 |
DIR3:28-33].
More of the correspondence of Peter and Aleksei, etc. [VSB,2:338-41]
*--A Russian folk legend had it that
son Aleksei died when he failed to respond
properly to Peter's efforts to make him an accomplished ship carpenter. Peter wanted
him to continue the building of wooden ships for Russia. But this was not his
talent. He just couldn't get the beams square. In a rage, Peter broke his skull
with a hammer. Of course, the legend is not "accurate", but at some level of
cultural significance, it was right on the mark.
\\
*--Nikolai
Ge's painting of Peter I interrogating his son Aleksei
*--Bushkovitch:339-426
*--Dmitrii Merezhkovskii’s novel
Peter and Alexis
<>1718:Neva River-Volga River canal project
which stretched along the banks of Lake Ladoga [g]
(begun in 1702), moved into final phase.
Menshikov was put in charge with
the usual meager results. After 1721, the project was handed over to
Burkhard
von Münnich who completed the task, but not until after Peter's death
<>1719de10:Peter I issued decree on College of
Mining. Others followed in which state chartered private enterprise in heavy
industrial sector. Economic as well as institutional modernization were
all a part of the Petrine plan, but every action was under the pressure of
war-time crisis
[VSB,2:354-5 and 357-8]
*--As the Great Northern War wound down, the
Petrine
transformation was able to extend its reach into neglected areas of
"civilian" or non-military need
\\
*--Hughes:135-59
*--Florinsky,1(13) deals with the war and the economy
under Peter
*--Raeff:89-92 summarizes Peter I's economic policies
<>1720:1722; Siberia, SE slopes of the Ural
Mountains, at edge of Bashkir steppes | Governmental official, Vasilii Tatishchev, founded & directed factories and mines
- Tatishchev set up Uktusskii zavod
[factory], moved it to site of future Ekaterinburg, a frontier fortress city
[g].
Delegated merchants to the tasks of establishing a market and building roads. Established
two mining schools and legal courts. He introduced regulations on forestry
- 1721ja18:Decree authorized factories to buy villages of serfs [DIR3:18]
- 1720:Bashkir people signed treaty with Russia. Bashkirs still independent, but must
repatriate (send back) all Russians who flee into Bashkir
lands & accept no more refugees
- Over the next 2 years, 4965 families (ca.20,000
persons) were sent back to Russia [Russian BrE]
- Tatishchev clashed with the entrepreneur Nikita Demidov on the
question of what role the state should play in the frontier economy.
Demidov depended on
Peter's royal favor to get his start, but wished thereafter to operate without restraint. Tatishchev wished to impose state regulations on free-wheeling exploitation of the regions
natural resources and labor. Genik was sent from Saint Petersburg to settle the dispute
and found in Tatishchev’s favor
- By the middle of the 18th century, the Demidov factories produced 40% of all
Russia's iron. Western Siberia was becoming a vital
component of Russian national economic security
- Something like a coherent Petrine economic policy was
emerging
- The following persons were leading supporters of mercantilist
policy in Russia's Eastward expansion, following after
Tatishchev:
Ostermann,A.I.
Sukin,FI(Ober-scy SNT)
Nepliuev,I.I.
Also industrialists and merchants:
Bazhenov,F.I.
Korzhavin,V.N.
Tverdyshev,I.B.
\\
*--MERSH,9:46-54
*--Hugh Hudson, Jr.,
Rise of the Demidov Family and the Russian Iron Industry in the
Eighteenth Century (1986)
*--Thomas Owen,
Russian Corporate Capitalism, chapter 3:
"Corporations in the Russian Empire, 1700-1914" (pp. 16-49)
<>1720:Saint Petersburg described [BL&T:17-18]
<>1720fe28:tsar Peter I issued the
General
Regulation which reformed government procedure. Peter denied himself and his
Senate the authority to issue verbal laws. Only written laws recognized
<>1721:Siberian port city Okhotsk
[g] was the point of departure for a Russian expedition to find
Japan via Kuril Islands [SHJ, 3:202]
*--In these years, 1719-1721, Ivan Evreinov and F. Luzhin completed a geological
and cartographic exploration of Kamchatka and the Kuril islands at the furthest
NE extreme of Siberia
<>1721ja16:Peter I decree on municipal administration. This reform built on early
efforts that had slackened during wartime. Peter returned again to this
important institutional/administrative project again before his death [VSB,2:346 and
355-7]
<>1721ja25:Peter I issued "The
Spiritual Regulation" for the administration of the Russian Orthodox
Church
[Excerpts = VSB,2:370-1 | KRR:334-6
| DIR3:34-42]. Orthodox Church Patriarch
henceforward was not to be appointed. [Thus the 1700 act
could now be given permanent legal sanction.]
- The Holy Synod was
created to assume the role of bureaucratic administration over the Church
- This ended the first period in the history of the
Russian Patriarchate, the most
elevated church institution (132 years)
- Very soon, Petrine policy went so
far as to overturn the 1000-year tradition of symphonia in the relation
of princely to clerical authority
- Peter was redesigning the relationship of
Church
and state in Russia
- 1723:1729; Thomas Consett described the present state and regulations of the
Church of Russia,
For God and Peter the Great: The Works of Thomas Consett...
- "The Spiritual Regulation" might be taken to mark the end of
the first epoch (1632-1721) of the Raskol [Schism].
Old-Ritualist alarm peaked in this time
- "The Spiritual Regulation" was taken to confirm the
belief of many traditional Russian believers that Satan and the Anti-Christ were subverting the True Faith (so clearly
announced, to their way of thinking, in the astonishing, bigger-than-life person
of tsar Peter I)
- The general European
evolution of secular culture in the
early-modern epoch was reflected also in "Holy Russia"
- For Russia there would be almost two centuries of ruinous cultural fissure,
pitting supposed spiritual traditionalists against evident secularist modernizers
- No further significant legislative action was to be taken with respect to the Orthodox Church until
after the fall of the Romanov Dynasty and the establishment of Soviet power, when
on the one hand the Patriarchate was restored but, on the other, the Petrine
secularist legacy (to speak colloquially) was put on steroids
\\
*--Hughes:332-57 (on religion under Peter I)
*--Florovsky,5:116-22
*--Raeff:123-30 summarizes church history, 1682-1825
*--Florinsky,1(15) deals with school and church
*--Serge Bolshakov,
Russian Nonconformity: The Story of Unofficial Religion in Russia
*--James Cracraft,
The Church Reform of Peter the Great
*--John Shelton Curtiss, Church and State in Russia: The Last Years of the Empire,
1900-1917 (NYC:1940)
*--Gregory L. Freeze, The Parish Clergy in Nineteenth-Century Russia: Crisis, Reform,
Counter-Reform (Princeton:1983)
<>1721au20:Sweden and Russia ended the "Great
Northern War" with Nystadt Treaty [VSB,2:342|
ORW:11]
- The war was over, but the bills were not yet fully paid. Heavy war-time
taxation continued to be a burden [VSB,2:345-53]
- Sweden lost its bid for status as world power
- Russian imperialist and frontier expansion, for
two decades bogged down in the west and for the time being stymied in
the south, made slow recovery in the east
<>1721oc22:Petersburg Trinity Cathedral | Russia commenced formal
celebration of the Nystadt Treaty and victory over Sweden
- Senate bestowed on tsar Peter I
the titles "Emperor", "the Great" and "Father of the Fatherland" [VSB,2:342-3]
- Peter delivered carefully composed and broadly significant statement of
thanks to the nation. He warned against complacency after victory. Byzantium
fell for that reason. Russia must now move beyond those praiseworthy
accomplishments that brought military victory. Russia must now take up those
areas of need neglected in time of war. He outlined a comprehensive plan for
post-war transformation of Russian institutional and social life in the
direction of relief for the people and quickening of broad economic ties with
other nations, a goal he summarized as "utility and gain for all" [pol'za i
pribytok obshchii] [N.A.Voskresenskii, Zakonodatel'nye akty...:213-14]
- This statement was widely distributed throughout Europe
- Peter had only four
more years of life after 21 years of wasteful war, but he here clearly projected another great time of change
ahead
<>1722:Russian theologian and imperial political advisor
Feofan
Prokopovich, "Sermon on Royal Authority.... [Raeff3:14-30 |
VSB,2:342-3]
- Peter the Great's reforms brought the
Russian Orthodox Church under direct state administration, in imitation of
certain northern European trends and reaching far beyond anything implied in the
Byzantine concept of church-state symphonia and thus in direct contradiction with Pope Gelasius's
"Letter" which had sought twelve-hundred years
earlier to distinguish sharply between the institutions of church and state
- 1725:Sermon at funeral of Peter I [TXT]
\\
*--Florovsky,5:122-48 presents harsh portrait of
Prokopovich and his legacy in Russian spiritual life
<>1722ja24:Russian ranks of civilian, military, church and royal court service were now more
systematically set by a Table of Ranks
[VSB,2:328-9 | DSD,2:4-14 |
KRR:228-9 | DSD,1:4-14 |
DIR2:17-19
| DIR3:19]
- Peter strove to open service careers to people of talent and ability, rather
than birth status. His Table of Ranks, by implication, established a new rational system for rewarding talent (as
exercised within state service) and linking it with the acknowledgment of social status
- But he failed to disassemble the old soslovie system with its hierarchical compartmentalization of clergy, aristocracy,
merchants, petty-burghers and peasants. Thus he created a tense and contradictory relationship between civil service rank
("assigned" identity) and these inherited social estates [sosloviia or "natal" identity
(ID)].
Tension and contradiction compromised the integrity of an already compromised social hierarchy
- Peter's reform extended the trends earlier embodied in the rise and fall of the tsarist system
of "mestnichestvo" [ID], but still Peter's reforms were a jolt. From
the time of Peter I, the Russian social hierarchy (singular) was transformed into a clumsy amalgamated stack
of hierarchies (plural). And while Peter I tried to open things up so that talent could thrive, he refused to grant any broader
or spontaneous opening in the stiffly enforced social/service hierarchies. Contradiction between "insider advantage"
and "careers open to talent" was palpable in the lives of many. This dysfunctional amalgam of natal and assigned identity
shaped Russian political and social history to the very end of the Russian old regime
[EG]
- Forty years after the Table of Ranks was put in place, Peter III and then Catherine II addressed the plight of
the two-tiered medieval social formation of aristocratic elites, but with limited success. Tensions
within social/service hierarchies continued
- One outstanding example of Petrine "democracy" was the career of
Petr Shafirov, the son of a commoner, a converted Jew.
Shafirov met Peter I in the famous "German [foreign] quarter" of Moscow.
In his early years, Peter met many in the "German quarter" who later became
close advisers and powerful figures in his reign, including Menshikov. Some were
"Russian" some where not. That distinction was not very important to Peter. He
sought ability and experience. Shafirov
joined Peter on the Grand Embassy [ID] as a trained and
talented diplomatic translator. He rose quickly to become Privy Secretary to
Peter, then Director of the Foreign Office, then Vice-Chancellor with the noble
title "Baron". Shafirov was a close associate of Menshikov. In 1722, Shafirov
was condemned to death by beheading after Menshikov accused him of corruption
[in a classic example of the pot calling the kettle black!], In the end, Shafirov was sent to Siberia rather than to the scaffold
- As the Great Northern War came to an end and Peter turned his energies
again to neglected "civilian" projects, the Petrine transformation
took on new life. Popular reaction intensified
\\
*--Hughes:159-203
*--Raeff:103-122 summarizes social history, 1682-1825
*--Kliuchevskii,4:101-2
<>1724:Russian political-economist and state servitor
(of peasant origins) Ivan Pososhkov (1652-1726) wrote a critical analysis of Russian problems and
submitted it to Peter I = Book on Poverty
and Wealth (not published until 1842) [VSB,2:326-7
and 358-61 | KRR:312-18 | DIR2:31-6
| DIR3:42-49]
- Pososhkov's book
criticized raw mercantilist policy
- It does not appear that Peter ever saw Pososhkov's book. The Emperor died in the
next year
- Pososhkov himself was arrested and, in 1726, died in the Peter-Paul
Fortress prison
- Peter's economic policies had exhausted Russia. Near constant warfare shaped the
developing Russian economy
- Somewhere between 75% and 80% of all government revenue was
spent on war
- Taxes rose 100% between 1682 and the outbreak of the Great Northern War
- 1724:After a seven-year effort to gather population figures, a primitive
census, and a series of "revisions" of those early faulty efforts, Peter
introduced the Poll Tax [Head Tax, Soul Tax, podushnaia podat'], the most
"regressive" of all taxes, levied equally on all male "souls" [a term that
shocked Pososhkov] of the lower or "non-privileged" sosloviia [formal
social estates] without regard for ability to pay. Clergy, nobility and
merchants, the privileged sosloviia [ID] were exempted. On the basis of the Poll Tax, state revenue jumped to
nearly six times the revenue collected in 1680
- Service egalitarianism was
easily subverted by the claims of social privilege and exemption. The Empire
moved toward funding itself out of the hides of the poorest social strata
- Thus serious
contradictions were embedded in Russian imperial social/service hierarchies
- Mining industry got its start, and iron mills began
production. In 1695, there were 17 iron works in Muscovy. At Peter's death, there were 52,
and 13 of these were in the Urals, an indication of the importance of frontier expansion
to modernization policies. At this time, coal production equaled that of England and iron
production was greater. By the reign of Catherine the Great Russia was the world leader in
coal production
- But modernization was largely for weapons, naval fittings, sails and
uniforms
- Peter laid the foundations of a modernizing industrial economy, but he did so in the form
of military mobilization
- Canals were dug. Foreign trade increased four-fold and exhibited a great
favorable balance
- But much of this made possible by a military procurement system which
emphasized state budgeting, state purchase of production, and outright state ownership of
productive enterprises
- Between 200 and 300 industries were established in Peter's time,
and 43% of them were owned by the government
- The workforce was pressed into even more
severe conditions of unfree labor, of serfdom
- A weak glimmering of a coherent Petrine economic policy can
be seen in the final ten years of his reign, but little was firmly
accomplished here at the heart of the great "riddle of backwardness"
\\
*--Alexander Gerschenkron, in
Economic Backwardness:17
(a chapter written in 1952), defined a "peculiar series of sequences" which
seemed to characterize every attempt to modernize the Russian economy
(1)
The state, moved by military needs, assumed the role of propelling agent of
economic progress
(2)
Therefore, economic development was always linked to military needs. Economic
development mirrored the irregular rhythms of war rather than the smoother pace
of productive and distributive growth. Economic policy vibrated between panicked
wartime crisis and peacetime torpor
(3) Movement in fits and starts
meant that great economic burdens were placed on the unfortunate generation
which had to "modernize" to support the military needs of their time
(4)
In order to assure that this unfortunate generation responded properly to these
state needs, severe measures of oppression were necessary to prevent shirking or
escape
(5)
The long periods of stagnation between military needs were made even deeper and more
abysmal since the sacrifices of the crisis period were always so devastating
Gerschenkron
doesn't mention it, but it might also be said that this "peculiar series of
sequences" suppressed the evolution of a spontaneous cooperation and exchange between
state, society and the economy (what some call "civil society" [ID])
and promoted the evolution of social atomization, isolation, and hostility.
Especially this last deficiency inspired Ivan Pososhkov's remarkable analysis
[ID]
*--Hughes:63-92 (on Peter's military/industrial
policies)
*--Blum:463-8 describes the notorious Petrine "soul
tax"
*--Blum:277-307 (general survey of economic
development from Peter I to Alexander II)
<>1725:Bashkir lands contained state
zavody
[factories] worked by 5422 male serfs. Russia exploited
Bashkir steppes in support of economic modernization
<>1725:Russian Imperial Academy of Sciences founded after Peter’s death, but
on a plan he ordered [VSB,2:368-9 | DIR2:19-20 |
DIR3:21-2 |BL&T:108]
- Here too the Petrine transformation was "top heavy" = There would be a Russian Academy
of Sciences, but there was no Russian university or even elementary school
- 1660s, sixty-five years earlier, the English Royal Society was created, today the oldest continuous "academy of sciences" in the world.
Independent of church or university administration, and without building on any form of national educational system,
an "invisible college" of natural philosophers, hardly less "top heavy" than
the later Russian Academy, began meeting to discuss the new philosophy of promoting knowledge of
the natural world through observation and experiment, which we now call science. The Royal Society's very moderenist motto
was "Nullius in verba", roughly translated as "take nobody's word for it" [CF=Francis Bacon | CF=Bazarov]. It is a
very modernist expression of the determination of
Fellows to withstand the domination of authority and to verify all statements by an appeal to facts determined
by experiment, one of the essential foundations of modern notions of "science"
[W]
\\
*--Hughes:298-332 (on education)
<>1725ja28:1762je28; Russia entered a 37-year ERA BETWEEN "GREATS"
from the death of Emperor Peter I "the Great" until Empress Catherine II "the Great"
<>1726fe08: Supreme Privy Council [Verkhovnyi
tainyi sovet] for a short while became the central autocratic authority [VSB,2:377]
- Prince Dmitrii Golitsyn (1665:1737)
was a major figure in the new Council. Educated in Italy, he served as an
ambassador to Turkey in 1701. Between 1711 and 1721, he was governor of the Kievan region (and drew close to the scholarly monks at the
spiritual academy there). He was extremely
learned, having amassed a personal library of over 6000 books. From 1722 he was
a prominent figure in the Petrine Senate (representing a small faction of
progressive-minded old boyar nobles). At the death of Peter I, he conspired
without success to bring the infant son (also named Peter) to the throne, with
the mother, Catherine and the Senate acting as regents
- A.D. Menshikov joined Golitsyn in the Supreme Privy Council, even though
he was a quintessential representative of the new Petrine service elite and in
stark contrast to Golitsyn. Legend
had it that Peter met Menshikov in Moscow in the time of their youth. Menshikov
was a footloose waif who sold pies on Moscow streets. He was a hell-raiser, and
that suited Peter exactly. Menshikov in a sense never left Peter's side. Peter
appointed him to various high and responsible posts, but he was a notorious
thief, embezzler and organized crook. Many times Peter had to slap him down.
Once Peter fined him half his whole fortune, which had grown immense through
procurement fraud (e.g., pocketing half the budget for military uniforms). Still
he remained a millionaire and always able to work his way back from exile into
Peter's favor. Now Menshikov conspired with success to
have Catherine crowned Empress and thus to avoid a new ascendancy of
Dmitrii Golitsyn's
associates behind Peter's
infant son on the throne. In this he was supported by certain officers ready to use force if they
did not get their way
- The Council thus combined an unlikely team of old
and new elites, with their base in the Senate but with no desire to elevate the
Senate to a central position. Rather they preferred an
irregular institution through which they could wield personal influence. And
Catherine, a serious alcoholic and in all other ways unsuited to the
responsibilities of rule, presented them no obstacle. They sought to reverse
certain Petrine reforms, to build down some of the unwieldy Petrine
institutions. However, they did not want to end the reforms altogether: Continue
the modernization, but at a slower pace, an elitist "Senatorial" pace
- The Petrine transformation, now nearly thirty years under way, was in
for some hard years, but the Supreme Privy Council did
not last long
\\
*--Hughes:416-45 (on Menshikov and other "new men" elevated to positions under
Peter I); 445-71 (legacy of Peter I)
*--Isabella De Madariaga,
Politics and Culture in Eighteenth-century Russia:57-77 on Dmitrii Golitsyn
*--Bushkovitch:426:45 (summary of Peter's reign)
<>1727:Siberia | Kiakhta Treaty between Russia and China
continued cooperative relations among these two powers on theSiberian frontier, but China moved with vigor on its
own southern frontier =
*1727:TIBET in grip of struggle between secular and religious authorities. The
Chinese Emperor imposed his military authority over region
*1764:Dublin. John Bell's travel account describes some of these events [excerpt in Lensen,Eastward:49-51]
<>1728:Moscow | Bashkir delegation led by Yarnei Yanchurin.
Bashkir steppe brought under more regular Russian administrationwhen Ufa guberniia was separated from Kazan.
Ufa region called "provintsiia" under authority of Senate.
Population there not required to render military service
<>1730ja19:Russian Senatorial party, led by
Dmitrii Golitsyn, imposed "Conditions" on Empress Anna [TXT]
[Raeff2:44-52 | VSB,2:378 |
DIR2:36-43
| DIR3:49-56]
- The Conditions imposed the following restrictions on Anna's power. Each prohibition implied a concluding phrase
"...on her own arbitrary authority" =
1. Not to start war with anyone
2. Not to conclude peace
3. Not to burden loyal subjects with new taxes
4a. Not to promote individuals to the sixth or higher rungs of the Table of Ranks, and
4b. To hand over command of Guard and other elite regiments to the Supreme Privy Council
5. Not to deprive nobles of life, property or honor without trial
6. Not to grant patrimonial estates [votchiny] and villages [in serf bondage]
7. Not to promote individuals to court service positions
8. Not to spend state revenue
- 1730fe28:1740; Russian Empress Anna assumed the throne, tore up "Conditions", abolished the
Supreme Privy Council, restored the Governing
Senate, and decreed autocracy restored. She reigned for ten years
- Favorites Ernests Johans Bîrens [Latvian-born; Russian= Biron], Ostermann
[Russian= Osterman], &
Münnich [Russian= Mennikh] were much resented
among Russian noble elite
- [In the secondary west-European historical literature, their names are
usually spelled in the the non-Russian way to emphasize their foreign family
roots. Sac does that too
- These favorites of Anna made some Russians nostalgic for Golitsyn and Menshikov.
Menshikov's long career as Peter's graft ridden crony was now
ameliorated in some minds by the fact that he was, after all, "Russian" and he did represent the
Petrine legacy which was evaporating altogether in an era of national slump and opportunistic
"foreign" elitism
- Yet it wasn't that simple. A further factional division widened between those, like Golitsyn,
who represented the civilian face of the Petrine legacy, and those, like Münnich,
who represented the military face
- Anna introduced many measures to ease the plight of grandee nobles (without much
improving the status of rural gentry) [VSB,2:378-81]
Some historians like to think of this as a rebirth of the Russian nobility
after decades of decline into a subordinate service condition. But the
statist quality of this "noble renaissance" is suggested by the following =
- 1736,
Dmitrii Golitsyn was arrested for malfeasance in office. In prison he soon died. His
great library was confiscated and parceled out
- Russian statesman V.N. Tatishchev published "...Assembled Russian Nobility about the State
Government" [DSD,1:15-27]
\\
*--Florinsky,1(16) deals with the eras of Empresses Anna and
Elizabeth
*--Miner Curtis, A Forgotten Empress: Anna Ivanovna and Her Era, 1730-1740.
NYC:1974
*--Philip Longworth, Autocracy and Aristocracy: The Russian Service Elite of 1730
<>1730:Bashkir lands in western Siberian
steppes [g] administered by A.P. Volynskii
who opposed the idea of an independent territory. He was antagonistic toward the Muslim
faith, but his concept was at heart imperialist rather than religious. He built more fortresses, refurbished
old. Mapped the region. Exploited Bashkir territory, claiming the
right of a superior civilization over the civilization of Islamic "infidels"
\\
*--Michael Khodarkovsky,
Russia's Steppe Frontier: The Making of a
Colonial Empire, 1500-1800
<>1730c:Siberia, Kamchatka Peninsula
[g] |
Russian Academy of Sciences explorer Stepan Krasheninnikov described indigenous rebellion observed during the
first Kamchatka expedition [Lensen,Eastward:30-3]
*--Stepan Krasheninikov,
Explorations
of Kamchatka, North Pacific scimitar; report of a journey made to explore eastern
Siberia in 1735-1741, by order of the Russian Imperial Government
*1731:1733; Ivan Kirilov organized second Kamchatka expedition,
revived Petrine mercantilist concept. Closer to home =
*1731:Petersburg-Lake Ladoga canal, started by Peter I, was finally completed
<>1732:Russian government ordered Vitus
Bering to explore Siberian waters for Japan
*--It was made clear that Asia terminated in the far NE at the shores of the
straits now called "Bering Straits" [DIR3:143-7]
<>1734:1737; Siberia, southern Ural Mountains
[g] | Vasilii Tatishchev was dispatched to create
more zavody [factory strong points]
- Tatishchev used his authority with much success to restrict zavody run by individual "entrepreneurs"
- The mercantilist state needed metals from these mines and found
it best if it ran the mines and zavody itself
- Administration of yasak [tax tribute] was shifted from yasak officials
to Bashkir elders
- For
over 400 years, since Mongol times, yasak taxation was the characteristic
method of gathering state revenue
- 1734:Siberia, southern Ural Mountains| The
creation of the Orenburg expedition extended Russian power further into Bashkir lands
- Ivan Kirilov led the
expedition [Demikova,NF in SIE,10:608 lists no particular scholar
attached to this expedition]
- Orenburg is
situated at the confluence of Ori & Ural rivers [g]
- Orenburg received many exemptions from usual imperial restrictions. Other
nationalities could live there. Christians, Muslims and other faiths were not
excluded
- These fortress settlements were to serve as strong points and retreats for
Cossack,
Kalmyk and other allies in the struggle against the Kazakh Tatars [the Kirghiz-Kaisets] who
roamed the region from the Altai highlands to Bukhara south of the Aral Sea
- This was an era of near constant war with the Bashkirs, but also a time of growing contact with
them
- Bashkirs no longer sought to create Islamic unity in their regions, but they still feared
for their land
- All Russian concessions, including a degree of Bashkir self-government, left the
land question open. Indeed the land surrounding Orenburg was taken from them
- Russian
factories spread into the Ekaterinburg region. All forests fell under imperial
control
- The official Russian goal may have been trade, but the military ways
conntinued from the Peter-I
era and influenced Russian behavior
- Bashkirs were put on an oppositional footing
- 1735:1736; Bashkir leader il'miak-Abyz led a rebellion in an effort
to protect Bashkir lands from Russian expansion
- Aleksandr Rumiantsev was sent to put down the rebellion with Russian troops mustered from
Perm and other Siberian factories under Tatishchev's management
- 1736:The rebellion was crushed. The lands of rebels were taken
- Other native peoples
who had not rebelled were invited to share in the spoils, e.g., the Meshcheriaki who
had earlier rented lands from the Bashkirs and now were offered these lands as
their own
- An unusual phenomenon in the history of European colonial/imperialist
expansion developed here on the steppes =
- In the west of Europe, many states were at the
beginning of two contradictory phases =
(1) a "progressive" phase in domestic politics
and
(2) a regressive phase in foreign politics - As liberal ideas and movements entered European
political culture at home, imperialistic projection of exploitative
economic, administrative and militaristic dominion spread from European
homelands out into the wider world [EG]
- But for the Russian Empire, imperialist rule beyond
"Russia" was a lot like Russian imperialist rule in Russia itself =
- Out on the Siberian steppes, those who came over to the Russian side and
made pioneers of themselves, living along the line of Russian forts that
stretched ever eastward and southward into Siberia and the dry prairies of the
lower Volga drainage, were officially designated "peasants". This was the bottom of
the formal imperial social/service hierarchies, but it was a form of
social generosity unusual among European colonial powers in their dealings with
indigenous peoples. And the door was left open for Bashkirs
to accept a similar offer
<>1736:Persian (Iranian) Safavid dynasty at an end
<>1736ap25:Russian decree against fleeing peasant
serfs [DIR2:125-6
| DIR3:140]
<>1737:Siberian Department established to administer
imperialist expansion to the Pacific Ocean
*--Bering and Steller charted the
northern Siberian coastline
<>1737ap14:Siberia, Orenburg | Kirilov dismissed. Later directors of the Orenburg Expedition in
Bashkir
territory =
*1737:1739; Vasilii Tatishchev
*1739:1742; V.A. Urusov [noBrE]
*1742:1744; I.I. Nepliuev (44:60; Governor)
<>1738:Russian ballet school founded in Petersburg
<>1738:Bering's first expedition into Siberian waters in search of Japan.
It was slow going, but then =
- 1739je27:Japan, Amatsu village, Awa Province (Chiba Prefecture) | Second expedition
of Vitus Bering disembarked from its Siberian port, led by Martin Petrovich Spanberg (Danish by birth), William Walton, and
Aleksei Il'ich Chirikov. They located Japan & went ashore briefly. Spanberg, Walton
& Chirikov reported, but they were not believed back home
- The expedition was sighted by the
Japanese off Shimoda (later one of USA
Commodore Matthew Perry's ports) [Sansom,WWJ:213]
- Behind and just out of sight of all this official exploration, an on-going unofficial Russian
contact had been established and kept up with the Ainu (indigenous peoples, now driven to
the northernmost extreme by Japanese frontier expansion in the Kuril Islands) &
with Japanese in Kurils [ibid:213]
\\
Lensen,Russian Push:50-5
<>1738:1739; Russian-Turkish war, ending in the Treaty of Beograd [Serbia,
Belgrade]. Russia gained dominion over the northern Black Sea coastline
<>1741:1745; Lower reaches of the Volga River, at the
western edge of the Bashkir steppes, near Tsaritsyn (Volgograd; Stalingrad]
[g]) | Astrakhan
Governor Vasilii Tatishchev "pacified" Kalmyk people. Tatishchev was a
severe but able Siberian frontier administrator whose
career spanned
two decades
<>1741:1762;
Russian Empress Elizabeth
[Elizaveta] [VSB,2:381-8 | DIR2:44-50
| DIR3:57-63]
reigned for 21 years
*--Survey SAC chronology of her reign for indications of great imperialist expansion and cultural
accomplishment, a certain grandee splendor centered on the isolated "gated community"
of the capital city Petersburg, but perhaps deserving of
the label "Enlightened"
\\
James F. Brennan,
Enlightened Despotism in Russia: The Reign of Elisabeth, 1741-1762
(1987)
<>1741jy:Russian expedition
[I], commanded by Vitus Bering, made
Alaskan "new world" landing on small island within sight of Mt. St. Elias
- Two centuries of Siberian expansion
and ten years of exploration by Bering
were now crowned by a remarkable "discovery" of North America from Asia. The
leap over the north Pacific opened a new era for Siberia
[MAP]
[MAP]
- On
this expedition, naturalist Steller confirmed sighting New World
beyond Siberian waters, from northern Pacific. Presence there of a certain blue jay--now
called the Steller's Jay--reinforced his conclusion
- For the next 125 years, Russia & America both experienced new-world frontier
expansion. Alaska became the great Russian/American shared imperialist/colonial adventure
\\
READINGS ON RUSSIAN/US PACIFIC RIM FRONTIER:
*--Decent narrative, with excellently clear maps and fine photos, describe
Russia in the New World [W]
*--Howard I. Kushner,
Conflict on the Northwest Coast: American-Russian Rivalry in the
Pacific Northwest, 1790-1867 See ch.6:"The Oregon Question and
Russian-America."
*--John J. Stephan & V. P. Chichkanov, eds.,
Soviet-American Horizons on the
Pacific
*--Hector Chevigny,
Russian America: The Great Alaskan Venture, 1741-1867
*--George V.Lantzeff and R. A. Pierce,
Eastward to Empire: Exploration and Conquest on
the Russian Open Frontier to 1750
*--Glynn Barratt, Russian Shadows on the British Northwest Coast of North America,
1810-1890: A Study of Rejection of Defence Responsibilities (1983) F1088.B25)
*--Foster Rhea Dulles,
Russia and America: Pacific Neighbors (1946) 327.7347 D888r
*--Stuart Ramsay Tompkins,
Alaska: Promyshlennik and Sourdough (1945)
*--S. B. Okun, The Russian American Company (Cambridge MA:1951)
*--Starr, ed.,
Russia's American Colony
Alaska: A shared frontier
1895:Alaska, Sitka | St. Michael's Russian Orthodox Church
[source]
<>1742ja02:Russian Senate issued decree
appointing missionaries to Kamchatka to convert the Kamchadal people to Orthodox
Christianity [DIR3:147-8]
*1742:Siberia, southern piedmont of the Ural Mountains | Orenburg fortress
moved to today's location where it quickly became the command center for Russian
SE military frontier and imperialist expansion
<>1744:ORN gbx fnd on basis of ORN.xpd. Nepliuev,IvIv (x.ORN.xpd
dtr) now 1st gbxor. Main authority over BSH & KZX [KIR] steppe. Nepliuev sought mfg
& skz clnists "no pri etom on vstreqal prepyatstviya, gluboko korenivwiyasya v
togdawnem obwwestvennom i gosudarstvennom stroe Rossii. Kolonizatsiya rus. okrain vsegda
wla pomimo pravitel'stva i daje v razrez s ustanovlennymi im poryadkami....". clnists
usually were "gulyawwie lyudi" IE:fugitives, beglye frm srfom txx mlt.srv &
rlg. gbxor cldn't condone this. SO 1st sought friendly TTR or Xtx.Kalmyks. KZN TTR~ better
bcs of INX in trd. Built water mills, cotton & plant soroqinskoe pweno. cldn't attract
RUS (merchant)--too bdn, but also RUS grd.pbl buduqi obyazany otpravlyat' raznye
povinnosti i slujby, kotorye oni nesli vsem mirom, vsyaqeski protivilis' vyxodu iz sredy
svoei soqlenov, tak kak vyxodom odnix neminuemo uveliqivalis' tyagoty ostal'nyx. ?Parallel
w krp in oxo?. gtx more sig., but "eto byli elementy, ves'ma maloprigodnye dlya
vneseniya v dikii krai naqal grajdanstvennosti i promywlennosti" [?very best?
Australia?] Ttw wanted to welcome fugitives but not allowed to do so; only UKR fugitives
allowed but 1742:SPB TSR ElizPetr stopped acceptance of UKR fugitives [BrE, 5:228??]
<>1746ja13:Ukz motivated by Nepliuev=All nepomnyawwix rodstva &
gnt allowed gt.ORN to rcv lnd & 3y xmt frm txx & mlt.srv. Nepliuev tried to free
grn frm stt, but to prevent monopolies (!?) These bought srf~ to wrk zvd~:
Miasnikov (merchant)
Tveryshev (merchant)
Sivers (merchant)
Shuvalov graf
Stroganov
Demidov,N
Mosolov
Osokin
<>1749:1754; ORN Menovoi dvor & Gostinyi dvor fnd. txx.trf.tUt
there for trd w/KZX & CAS
<>1747:French provincial political theorist Charles Louis de Secondat, baron
de la Brède et de Montesquieu [W]
published his most important political tract, De l'esprit des lois [The
Spirit of Laws] [W] [excerpts]
- Montesquieu's tract was a comparative study of politics, almost "social-scientific" in its
presumption of the need for empirical data
- The tract was thus a good example of
new ways of thinking in the European "Enlightenment"
- Montesquieu described three forms
of government, (1) republic ["res" "publica", the instrument of the public],
(2) aristocracy [the rule of
the well-born], and (3) despotism [rule of the single towering individual]
- Montesquieu had a great talent for political theory,
and his study continued from this time forward to have a powerful influence on world opinion
- But he
also had considerable executive experience within his own regional version of that peculiar French institution of
local aristocratic self-government, the parlement of Bordeaux,
located in the far south-western regions of the French kingdom, remote in so
many ways from Paris [ID#1]
[ID#2]
- Theory and experience mixed well in his brilliant essay on the "spirit" of laws
- No surprise, among the
three forms of government, Montesquieu preferred (2) aristocracy [the rule of
the well-born]
<>1751:TIBET under
Chinese imperialist authority. Secular government
of Tibet abolished in
favor of reign of the Dali Llama and his spiritual council.
<>1753oc13:Russian
Senate
Ukaz supported 1746ja13:Ukaz in support of Nepliuev's effort to protect the
Islamic Bashkir indigenous votchina
[patrimony] and its native peoples from imposition of Russian military obligations and Orthodox Christianization
[PSZ#10141 | 1871:RAr#4-5. Nepliuev zapiski]
- 1754:1757; Bashkir rebellion could not be prevented
- Meshcheriak Batyrsh
[Batarma in BrE BXO/Nepliuev] Aleev, talented organizer & Muslim scholar and
mullah was finally defeated and arrested (further fate unknown)
- Fifty thousand
Bashkir
fled into Kazakh/Kirghiz steppe wilderness to the south [g]
- 1755:Orenburg Cossack militia created [Orenburgskoe
kazach'e voisko]. This new frontier militia was made up of Samara, Alekseevsk, Ufa, & Isetsk Cossacks.
These were supplemented
with soldiers in the frontier military, peasant Bashkir/Meshcher,
Kalmyk, Ukrainian and Don River Cossacks
- The Russian state was moving to bring some control over Cossack military units and to
move them all in a SE direction into frontier territories, further from the imperialist
"metropol" (the urban, managerial center of expansionist policy) and deeper into the Russian "periphery"
(the remote territories managed from the metropol)
- Like the USA cavalry, the
Orenburg militia was the forceful "cutting edge" of frontier advancement into
indigenous people's territories
- By 1768 the Orenburg Cossacks numbered 13,700, of whom 4,700 served in the new
tsarist Cossack military
- Russian imperialist frontier in the SE was consolidated,
but in the west complications again intervened
\\
SIE minimizes Aleev role
<>1755:Moscow University established according to Ivan
Shuvalov proposal [VSB,2:388-9;
BL&T:112f]
*--In these years "Russian" high culture -- a Russian secular
civilization -- was born
\\
*--Raeff:131-58 summarizes intellectual life, 1682-1825
*--J. L. Black,
Citizens for the Fatherland: Education, Educators, and Pedagogical
Ideals in Eighteenth Century Russia (East European Monographs no. 53, 1979)
*----------.
G. F. Muller and the Imperial Russian Academy (1986)
*--J. L. Black, ed.
Essays on Karamzin: Russian Men of Letters, Political Thinkers,
Historians, 1766-1826 (1975)
*--Marc Raeff, Origins of the Russian Intelligentsia: The Eighteenth-Century Nobility
(NYC:1966) [HT647.R3]
*--Hans Rogger, National Consciousness in Eighteenth-Century Russia. Cambridge
MA:1960
<>1755:Russian scholar
Mikhail Lomonosov (-1765), Russian
Grammar. Lomonosov sometimes called the Russian Benjamin Franklin (just as
the Russians might call Franklin the American Lomonosov). Here are some Lomonosov writings =
*--"Panegyric...." [Raeff3:32-48]
*--Refutation of "Normanist" historical theory which claimed that in
862:Vikings founded Russian state [DIR2:52-5
| DIR3:64-8]
*--More [BL&T:109f]
*1753my10:SPB. Letter on poor poets [GPR:618-20]
*1753my31:SPB. Letter on electrical experiments [GPR:620-23]
\\
*--Wagar on Lomonosov [TXT]
*--Kudriavtsev,
The Life and Work of Lomonosov (MVA:1954) [UO]
*--B. N. Menshutkin, Russia's Lomonosov: Chemist, Courtier, Physicist, Poet
(Princeton NJ:1952)
<>1755:Saint Petersburg | In the face of increasingly complex budgetary needs of
an expanding empire, a new tax structure [Tamozhennyi ustav] introduced, replacing
Ordyn-Nashchokin’s 1667:Novotorg.ustav
[ID]
<>1756:1763; New World English
and French colonial holdings (future USA and Canada) |
Armies of England and France fought the "Old War" in the
"New World" (often called the French-Indian War)
- 1759se13:French Canadian stronghold Quebec fell to English armies.
The days of French imperialist dominion over the New World were numbered, but
none imagined at this time that a new and independent nation, rather than
England, would succeed
France in all of its vast territories in the
southern and central region of North
America, the Mississippi River basin
- 1761:Governor Glen, "The Role of the Indians in the rivalry Between France, Spain
and England" [W#1]
[W#2]
- 1762:Native American indigenous religious/military prophet and leader Neolin
was of the Delaware tribe. He called on mystic powers to defeat the modern
armies of imperialist Europe. His actions prefigured later Ghost Dance
[ID]
- 1763ap27:New World colonies (future USA & Canada), French
Canada, Detroit [French for "the narrows"] of Lake Superior | Great meeting of
indigenous American tribes that formed up the Iroquois confederacy. Pontiac emerged as military leader
- 1763my:Detroit Fort | After France surrendered fort to England, the indigenous American
tribes demanded supplies, as promised by their ally England. War broke out, at
first going the way of the tribes. Native Americans captured the fort. England supplied natives with small-pox infested blankets
- 1763au:Battle of Bushy Run | England defeated indigenous leader Pontiac
- 1763fa:War against Pontiac ended. Pontiac fled into IL. He was later
assassinated
- UO website maps:
1783:Native
American tribes and
1783:European
possessions bordering rebellious colonies
- More on Native Americans
\\
*--USA Boston historian Francis Parkman devoted much of his scholarly life to an
explanation of why England prevailed in North America. Is it English capitalist culture
(plus Parkman’s Boston-style sense of racial superiority) vs. French mercantilism
(plus Parkman’s presumption of Latino laxity)? How does this relate to Parkman’s
1846:trip to the KS, WY, & CO prairies, which he commemorated in the grandly
and deceptively titled
The California and
Oregon
Trail
*--Parkman account influenced by novelist James Fenimore Cooper & by Augustin
Thierry, a historian of the 1066:Norman conquest of England. It is a story of
the victory of a superior race over a lesser race, as Parkman described it in his autobiographical novel
Vassal
Morton (CF.Jacobs,Parkman:46f)
<>1756:1763; In Europe
the "French-Indian War"
in the New World was but one front in a vast imperialist war,
at first fought among native peoples in
imperialized lands. It now
boomeranged and embroiled Europe in what is called the Seven Years War, a struggle between
conflicting principles of old mercantilism and
novel capitalism)
- In this war, dynastic rivalries of limited significance quickly ignited
conflict of vast implication. The British East India Co. (as it
eventually came to be known) was able to neutralize the French East India Co.
and limit its schemes to the Mississippi Valley
- French imperialist colonialism
in the New World was doomed
- This war bore hints of European catastrophes to come. Imperialist
rivalry in distant lands threatened war in the European homeland. Brutal
policies and practices overseas were coming home. Certain proud European states
that seemed to be losing out in the overseas imperialist scramble sought
advantages closer at hand [e.g., France after
1799 and Germany in
1914;
perhaps Russia after 1945]
<>1760oc:Russian armies captured Berlin
[g] as Seven Years War intensified
- 1762:New Russian Emperor Peter III signed Treaty of Saint Petersburg with the
new waxing power in Central Europe, Prussia. The new
Emperor was an infamous Prussophile
- The larger geo-political significance of this war lay in the
fact that Russian and Prussian power waxed stronger
while the overseas imperial powers, England, France and Spain grabbed at one
another's throats
- Spain was already an empire in precipitous decline
- France
was about to be forced to sell a big chunk of its New World empire in order to
finance a newly exploding European continental empire
[ID]
- Hostility was settled and friendship
restored between the two ascendant powers, Russia and Prussia;
this over the bodies of the now immobilized but
once
powerful Sweden and soon-to-be partitioned Poland
- Blunders of other European imperialist powers thus encouraged
Russian imperialist ambition
\\
*--Herbert H. Kaplan,
Russia at the Outbreak of the Seven Years' War (Berkeley
CA:1968) [DD411.5.K3]
*--Florinsky,1(17):especially 474-80
<>1760de13:Russian gentry landlords empowered by decree to
exile troublesome serfs to Siberia [VSB,2:391]
<>1762:Swiss-born French-language philosopher,
social theorist and musician Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712:1778) published his most
mature and influential piece of political analysis, Contrat social [The
Social Contract]
- 1749:Earlier, the Dijon Academy brought first fame to Rousseau when it awarded its prize to
his essay on how civilization always corrupts the natural goodness of humanity.
Five years later =
- 1754:Discours sur l'origine de l'inégalité
des hommes [Discourse on the origin of inequality among humans] made an
extended and more complex (maybe even occasionally contradictory) statement on
his prize-winning theme. Eight years passed =
- 1762:Contrat social pulled it all together. What is popularly called
"the noble savage" was just naturally good. High civilization made him bad. "Man
is born free, but is everywhere in chains" was an oft-quoted Rousseau phrase.
Ancient agricultural civilization was as much at fault as later
industrialization and universal concepts of private property. So Rousseau did
not seek to "return to nature". He was not in essence "reactionary". He was
"radical" in the sense that he looked forward to a new way of life that would as
nearly as possible recapture the human birthright of simplicity and
goodness. The most radical idea was that all political and social sovereignty
had to reside with the people. However, the people had to commit themselves to
a "social contract", had to bind themselves to an elusive thing he called "The
General Will".
- Rousseau is thought of as an originator of European "Romanticism",
with its emphasis on free expression of spontaneous, essential, "natural" and largely emotional truths
of human consciousness, unspoiled by artificial "high-brow"
rationalized sophistication
- The complete and complex Rousseau legacy is suggested in the
10+ volume
English-language edition of his Works
<>1762fe07:Peter III began
"emancipation" of gentry [pomeshchik noble landowners] from obligatory state service [VSB,2:391-2
| DIR2:55-8 | DIR3:69-72]
*--Manifesto on freedom of nobility [KRR:230-2 |
DSD,1:28-35]
*--Twenty years later, Catherine II took bolder and more elaborate steps to
address the problems embedded in Russian social/service hierarchies, especially
those of the service-shackled nobility
<>1762je28:1796;
CATHERINE II "THE GREAT" [Ekaterina Velikaia]
- She reigned for 34 years through one of the most dramatic epochs in European history =
- EUROPEAN ENLIGHTENMENT and
FRENCH REVOLUTION
- 1762jy12:English ambassador reported on the coup d'état that resulted in Peter III's murder
and brought Catherine to the Russian throne [WRH]
- 1762au:Russian Empress Catherine II described the coup in a letter to Poniatowski [WRH |
DIR2:59-64 | DIR3:73-8]
- Manifesto on ascending throne [WRH]
-
Catherine II, Empress of Russia.
The
Memoirs of Catherine the Great
- William Tooke,
View
of the Russian Empire...(1799) [Excerpts:VSB,2:428-31;
WRH3:206] One
of the first "professional Russian experts"; also a source of first-hand information on everyday life in Catherine's time
- Erich Donnert,
Russia in the Age of Enlightenment (1985)
- Sources on everyday life of Catherine and in her court in the early years [VSB,2:395-403]
- William F. Reddaway, ed., Documents of Catherine the Great (1931) [ORBIS OSU]
\\
*--Florinsky,1(19)&(23)
*--John T. Alexander,
Catherine the
Great: Life and Legend ["ACG" hereafter]
*--Isabel de Madariaga,
Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great
*--Marc Raeff, ed.
Catherine the Great: A Profile (1972) [ORBIS OSU]
*--Raeff:69-76 compares Peter I's and Catherine II's institutional reforms
*--David Ransel,
The politics of
Catherinian Russia: the Panin Party
*--Kazimierz Waliszewski,
The Romance of an Empress: Catherine Second of Russia
(reprint of famous anti-Russian, misogynist biography)
<>1762jy03:Catherine's first official act was against the
wide-spread peasant presumption that Peter III's emancipation
of nobles from state service meant that peasants need no longer serve their landlords. She
decreed "that each and every person be protected in the enjoyment of his well-earned
property and his rights, and, conversely, that no one step beyond the bounds of his rank
and his office, we therefore intend to protect the landlords in their estates and
possessions inviolably and to keep the peasants in their proper submission to them".
Three months later, a second such decree followed, further binding
serfs [VSB,2:449-50]
*--Twenty-three years later, Catherine took bolder steps
than Peter III. She seemed to grant even greater independence to noble gentry landlords
<>1762de28:Russian statesman Count Nikita Panin penned
influential memos on imperial governance [Raeff2:54-68]
*--Catherine II waged a struggle against corruption [VSB,2:451-2]
<>1763jy22:Catherine II invited foreigners (largely
German-speaking Mennonites) to settle in Russia north of the Black Sea (the Pontic
steppes) and along the middle Volga
[W#1]
[W#2]
*--Volga Germans
[W]
*--Mennonites
[W] [VSB,2:450-1]
*--Germans from Russia genealogical website
[W] Germans from Russia Heritage Society
[W]
Kansas Historical Society site
[W]
*--Sidney Heitman Germans from Russia in Colorado Study Project
[W]
\\
*1974:Norman Saul four-part internet article on Mennonites in Kansas
[W#1]
[W#2]
[W#3]
[W#4]
<>1764:Catherine II confiscated Russian Orthodox Church lands
<>1764:Fedor Emin published his Moral Fables
<>1764:Russian Empress Catherine II, instructions on functions of
Prokurator-General [DSD,1:36-43]
*--In this same year, she purchased a fabulous collection of art and created a museum
connected with the recently completed Winter Palace in Petersburg. She named the museum
the "Hermitage" [W]
<>1765:English ambassador described Catherine II [WRH]
<>1765:Russian Free Economic Society [VEO] founded
*--Sponsored essay contests on questions like serfdom [VSB,2:461-2]
VEO once awarded a prize to an essay which recommended emancipation of serfs
*--Statistics about the Russian rural economy of the 18th century [KRR:268-72]
\\
*--Arcadius
Kahan, The Plow, the Hammer, and the Knout: An Economic History of
Eighteenth-century Russia (1985)
<>1765ja17:Russian decree on exile & hard labor for peasant
serfs [VSB,2:453 |
DIR2:126
| DIR3:141]
*--This year the Senate gave instructions on potato growing [VSB,2:452-3]
<>1766de14:Catherine II decree established the
Legislative
Commission [VSB,2:405-6]
*--Catherine then issued her
Nakaz [Instructions] to the
Commission and invited certain others to do the same
*--Catherine's own account of the Commission [VSB,2:403]
*--The Commission met with little concrete results until 1774, in the months
after the rise of the Pugachev Rebellion
\\
*--Florinsky,1(21)
*--19th c. historical description of Commission by Sergei Solov'ev,
RRC2,2:256f
<>1767:Honda Toshiaki(1744:1821; ) orx'd scl which reflected his
interest in sea nvy mth NED lng, esp.problems of Hokkaido. Went to sea in North, in command of
small coastal vessel. pst on shipping, zpd conditions, natural resources. \Keisei
Hisaku\(Secret Plan of Government) proposed stt control of mfg, trd, shipping. Also MPR
plan, colonization. Opposed JPN closed ekn, favored irx.trd, esp. w/RUS. Supported
construction of sea-going merchant marine [Sansom, WWJ:232] A "zpdik" so to
speak
<>1767:Russian Orthodox Church’s monastic property
nationalized and clergy became civil servants
<>1767jy19:Russian Empress Catherine II issued her
Nakaz
[Instructions] to Legislative Commission [TXT] [DSD,2 |
Briefer in RRC2,2:252f | VSB,2:403 |
DIR2:64-88
| DIR3:79-94]
- Catherine also invited certain social groups to draft "instructions" and to
select delegates to the Commission. Those invited can be classified as nobles,
merchants, certain clergy, Cossacks and smattering of "free" townspeople and
other servile social groups directly attached to state institutions. About one
half of all Russian serfs -- about half the whole Russian population -- were
attached to institutions rather than to individual gentry aristocrats. Catherine
did not invite delegates from the other half the population of the Empire, "privately owned"
("gentry owned") serfs. However, many not invited joined those who were. See the 20 examples of
"instructions" submitted to the Commission, translated in FFS:17-84; also see
VSB,2:431-41
- 1768:The Legislative Commission addressed sensitive issues. Russian government, according to S.E. Desnitskii, should be structured in
Legislative, Judicial & Executive branches. A. Ya. Polenov expressed his opinion on
serfs [DSD,1:44-88]
- Catherine did not encourage any specific tinkering with established
social/service hierarchies. Serfdom might be a topic, but the enforced
categorization of the overwhelming majority of the population in the social
estate "peasantry" was not. Nor was there any serious attention to the
constrictive service categories of the Table of Ranks [ID]. However "enlightened" her Nakaz, it still favored
the privileged sosloviia [formal social classes or estates]. The three privileged
sosloviia
were the most important of those invited to send delegates to participate in deliberations of the Legislative Commission =
- Traditional Russian law formally recognized three privileged social
estates [sosloviia] =
Clergy [dukhovenstvo]
Nobility [dvorianstvo]
Merchantry [kupechestvo]
- And it recognized two "common" sosloviia =
Petty urbanites [meshchanstvo, sometimes posadniki]
Peasants [krest'ianstvo = (a) "privately owned": serfs, (b) "state owned" serfs and (c) a smattering
of "free" villagers]
- Traditional law distinguished and controlled relationships among and between these sosloviia. The state
enforced privileges, exemptions, and duties (or responsibilities and justifications) in connection with
these sosloviia. The central project was to regulate the relationship of the sosloviia to state power
- While these
were in a sense "natal" (defined by birth) or inherited
social estates, they had, by the late medieval period, become creatures of state definition and
maintenance [EG]
- Then Peter the Great's Table of Ranks positioned state power more
firmly than ever over the social structure and further compromised the practical significance
of natal identity within the sosloviia
- Russian society in the Imperial period was bound in an elaborate but clumsy
and often contradictory set of enforced categories
that combined soslovie and service-rank in stiff and increasingly
dysfunctional social/service hierarchies
\\
*1986fe:AHR#91,1:11-36| Gregory L. Freeze, "The
Soslovie
(Estate) Paradigm and Russian Social History"
*1961de:SlR:565-582| Cyril E. Black, "The Nature of Imperial Russian Society"
[reprinted in
TDU:173-208 (with full discussion) and in
RRC2,2#43]
<>1767au22:Catherine II's
Senate issued decree prohibiting complaints by serfs [VSB,2:453-4]
*--In these years Russian serf-owning gentry aristocrats issued instructions on management of
everyday life on
their estates [VSB,2:441-9 | KRR:292-4 |
DSD,1:89-110] =
Petr Rumiantsev
P. B. Sheremetev
Ivan Shuvalov
Vladimir Orlov
P. I. Rychkov
A.T. Bolotov
*--Catherine's au22 decree is sometimes taken to represent the lowest point
in the history of serf legislation
\\
*--Blum:442-74 describes the various forms of serf
obligation owed officials and gentry elites, including barshchina
(labor dues) and obrok (quit-rent, a monetary obligation,
sometimes satisfied with a portion of village agricultural production)
*--Robinson,ch1 (Serfdom and peasant wars) & ch2
("The triumph of the servile system")
<>1768:1774; Ottoman Turks and Russia at war
\\
*--Florinsky,1:514-26
<>1769:1772; Russian publisher
Nikolai Novikov wrote satirical pieces for his journals,
Truten' [The Drone] and Zhivopisets
[The Artist] [VSB,2:462-4]
*1769je06:SPB. Novikov wrote a clever letter to the publisher [whom the small
"reading public" knew to be Catherine II] of popular satirical journal
[GPR:625-7 | DIR3:94-6] Catherine seemed to enjoy the game of journalistic polemics, seemed
to encourage bold and clever expression of opinion. She took this to be a
characteristic of enlightened public opinion
*1770ja:Novikov's thoughts on the nature of Russian society [DIR3:96-9]
\\
*--W. Gareth Jones,
Nikolay Novikov: Enlightener of Russia (1984)
*--Gary Marker,
Publishing, Printing, and the Origins of Intellectual Life in Russia,
1700-1800 (1985)
<>1770:1771; Kamchatka Peninsula | Moritz Alader Benyowsky (various spellings) Hungarian
political refugee, fled by sea, put in at Ryukyu Island. He wrote a letter to a Dutch
captain at Nagasaki in which he falsely reported that Russians had fortress on Kurils,
amunition, artillery, magazine in readiness. Russia, he said, planned attack Matsumae
(Hokkaido) and near-by islands. The letter was translated & sent to Tokugawa government
*--At
this time Japanese specialists on the Netherlands expanded their studies to include
Russian language
\\
*--Togawa"Russian and Slavic":2
*--PH&G:767
*--Sansom,WWJ:213
<>1771:Moscow urban disorder in connection with the plague [KRR:318-21]
<>1772:England decided that slavery at home was not
supported by English law. Soon England's 15,000 slaves would be free
*--It was another half century
[ID] before England
backed away from its own, and took a hostile position against others', lucrative "off shore"
slavery
<>1772:Paris | Encyclopédie; ou, Dictionnaire raisonné
des sciences, des arts, et des métiers, [Encyclopedia; or Rational
Dictionary of Scholarship, Science, Arts and Crafts], the great publication project of the
European
Enlightenment came to completion in 28 volumes (soon supplemental volumes and an
index were issued), under editor Denis Diderot
*--Russian Empress Catherine II supported Diderot's publication and corresponded with major Enlightenment figures [VSB,2:408-10],
including the senior and greatest philosophe of them all, Voltaire
*--Voltaire and Catherine the Great: Selected Correspondence (1974)
*--Voltaire wrote an ambitious study of
Russia Under Peter the Great
*--In Voltaire's "English Letters" he acknowledged the profound influence exerted by
Isaac Newton and the scientific revolution,
transforming the intellectual landscape
[W
with biography & link to "English Letters"]
[W]
[W]
[W]
[W]
[W]
[W]
[W]
*--Jean-Jacques Rousseau was another enduring
influence on the age of Enlightenment, and
thereafter
\\
*-- Wagar defines Enlightenment [TXT],
then the Russian Enlightenment in particular [6-paragraph
TXT]
<>1772:1775; Poland experienced the
first of
three partitions at the hands of
Prussia, Austria and
Russia [DIR2:89-93 | DIR3:100-103]
*1795:Polish territories absorbed into Russia by the end of this two-decade process
included a population of Jews larger than anything Russia had hitherto experienced. The
Jewish "Pale of Settlement" restricted
this population to designated locations, except when state permission was granted to live
elsewhere. This represented a variation on recognizable European imperialist policies of
population concentration and frontier development
(without the "removal")
\\
*--Salo W. Baron,
The Russian Jew under
Tsars and Soviets (1964)
*--S. M. Dubnow,
History of the Jews in Russia and Poland (1916-20)
Consult Dubnow's index
*--Herbert H. Kaplan,
The First Partition of Poland (1962)
*--Heinz-Dietrich Löwe,
The Tsars and the
Jews ... 1772-1917 (1993)
*--Jerzy Lukowski,
Liberty's Folly: The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the Eighteenth
Century, 1697-1795 (1991)
*--Iw. Pogonowski,
Poland: A Historical Atlas
()
*--P. S. Wandycz.
The Lands of Partitioned Poland, 1795-1918 (1974)
<>1773mr02:USA Boston | Lamps fueled by whale oil for the
first time illuminated streets. Tallow candles made of Sperm Whale oil by this
time lighted many public places and homes
*--The earliest squeaks of the Industrial Revolution were
stilled by whale oil, and urban darkness was first pushed back by the same. From
this time until the second half of the 19th century we have the first
oil age, a whale-oil age. This first age of energy politics, 1712-1872 (160
years), can be divided into three “whale-oil” phases =
*1712:1780; Nantucket Island the center of
first phase of the “whale-oil
age” for 68 years. This age centered on the American whaling industry and concentrated on the
Sperm Whale. The Sperm whale was, pound for pound, the most profitable of the
great “fishes” (actually mammals), with their rich oil, spermaceti and ambergris
(used in fine perfumes and costing up to $400/ounce in the 19th c.)
*--The New World [USA] whale fisheries were in the hands of
a nearly independent “city-state” or, more precisely, “island-state”, Nantucket.
The little, low, sandy island just south of Cape Cod was managed by Quaker
seamen whose domain stretched around the global high seas and whose “loyalties”
were oriented there rather than toward the mainland colonial states
*--The Revolutionary War destroyed the USA whaling industry, even though
Nantucket whalers worked hard to protect their neutrality throughout the
hostilities. The whalers sought neutrality, but they were largely “Tory” = They
remained gently loyal to English colonial authority and did not support the
American Revolution. The brief second phase of the
“whale-oil age” altered that picture
<>1773oc05:1774mr23; Siberian frontier fortress
Orenburg under siege by rebel army commanded by Russian Old Ritualist
Cossack Emeliano Pugachev
*--This rebellion was soon named after its leading figure, Pugachev,
who was soon issuing decrees and other official acts [TXTs] [VSB,2:454-5]
*--Pugachev claimed to be Peter III, miraculously alive eleven years after
conspirators murdered him and elevated the "German woman" Catherine to the
throne [DSD,1:111-35]
*--The rebellion expanded and swept up all elements
of discontent on the Kalmyk, Kazakh & Bashkir steppes
*--Gaining support from discontented peasants, especially those threatened by
serfdom, the movement expanded up the Volga drainage toward the heart
of Russia
*--Pugachev received petitions that described popular discontent [FFS:84-86]
*--Krest'ianskaia
voina [...] na territorii Bashkirii: Sbornik dokumentov
\\
*--Florinsky,1(22)
*--Kolchin:246-50
*--Aleksandr S. Pushkin,
The History of Pugachev (1983)
*--John T. Alexander,
Autocratic Politics in a National Crisis
(1969)
*----------.
Emperor of the Cossacks: Pugachev and the Frontier Jacquerie of 1773-1775
(1973)
*--Blum:551-60 describes frequent peasant rebellions
<>1773de12:Russian imperial decree against Pugachev [WRH|
DIR2:94-6 | DIR3:104-106]
<>1774jy10:Ottoman Turks and Russia signed Kuchuk Kainardji treaty [VSB,2:406-7|
DIR2:97-107
| DIR3:107-113]
*--Imperial Russia's hand was forced by the Pugachev rebellion. Military force
had to be diverted from the Ottoman front and sent against Pugachev along the
Volga frontier. Catherine II had to accept a settlement with Turkey less
favorable than she might have expected if there had been no Pugachev
*--Frontier or
imperial policy was now becoming a domestic political problem, ruling was
becoming confused with governing, and vice-versa. Problems of
domestic administration were interfering with imperialist ambitions
<>1774jy20:Pugachev issued an "Emancipation
Decree" [DIR2:96 | DIR3:106]
<>1774au01:Nizhnii-Novgorod region | Local
serf described
disturbance [VSB,2:456-7]
<>1774au23:Tambov provincial official report on
Pugachev
uprising [VSB,2:457-8]
<>1774se05:oc26(NS); Philadelphia | Beginning of
American Revolution. Representatives of twelve colonial states (Georgia did not
participate) organized nearly two-month long Continental Congress to protest
English mistreatment. Sought redress of grievances from England, but
revolutionary war broke out before the Second Continental Congress could hold
its scheduled meeting (below)
- 1773de16: Nine months earlier, Boston merchants, disguised as Native-Americans,
boarded The British East India Co. ships and
dumped the cargo of tea into the bay. This was the famous "Boston Tea Party"
[ID]. In the 1830s, German economist Friedrich
List emphasized the desire for "national liberation" from an exploitative
imperialist overlord, England, the desire for economic independence from the
"mother country", as a central factor causing the American Revolution [TXT]
- 1775mr22:English parliamentarian
Edmund Burke delivered his "Speech on Conciliation with America"
[TXT], arguing for
less harsh dealings with the rebellious colonies. He sought to avoid American Revolution
- 1775ap19:Lexington and Concord battles marked opening of military phase of
American Revolution. Hopes for conciliation were now a thing of the past
- 1775my10:Philadelphia | Second Continental Congress met as
American Revolutionary crisis deepened
<>1774se15:Pugachev captured. His officers' testimony [VSB,2:458]
<>1774de19:Catherine II issued manifesto "concerning
the crimes of the Cossack Pugachev" [VSB,2:458-9]
*--Pugachev was dispatched, but the fear of
Pugachev (the pugachevshchina) persisted
<>1775au03:Catherine II abolished the Zaporozhian Sech' [VSB,2:459-60]
Russian state cracked down on Cossacks. Cossack autonomy was a victim of Pugachev
rebellion. An exciting 200-years of precarious
independence on the southern Russian Ukraine was an an end
<>1775no07:Russian reform of provincial administration
created the "guberniia" [province] system [VSB,2:410-11|
KRR:242-4| DSD,1:136-57] Catherine
abolished the harsh and corrupt voevody (for three centuries,
voevody had been largely responsible for military-style government in
frontier provinces) in favor
of what appeared to be a more rational system of civilian government. It still might be
said however that her goal was to place more responsibility for public order on provincial
officials, thus to overcome her weak position beyond the capitals, as shown by early
successes of Pugachev rebellion
*--Pugachev taught at least this = The closest
imperial or frontier domains
had to be "governed" as part of the Empire, not just "ruled"
as colonial possessions. Russian foreign policy had
to become more subtle and complex
<>1776:1871;
Era
of "European Revolution" (95 years)
<>1776:Scotland (Great Britain) |
Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and
Causes of the Wealth of Nations,
[TXT1]
[TXT2] [TXT3]
[TXT4]
- Smith meant to contrast his free-market "wealth of nations" with mercantilist
"wealth of ruling powers". This was the first systematic critique of the
economic system that had dominated European political/economic life
over the past century and a half = Mercantilism
- In the domestic economy, Smith extolled market-driven production and distribution of
commodities, placing accent on freedom of exchange or laissez-faire
[hands-off] role of government or other officials
- He was confident that a natural,
rational self-regulation ("invisible hand") rather than the very visible
governmental and bureaucratic hand of state authority would bring order as well
as prosperity for the whole nation. Here are his words from Book 4, ch. 2 [SAC
editor has added boldface] = The
individual engaged in personal market economy decisions need have no broader
social benefit in mind, just his own interests. The economically active person
neither intends to promote the public interest, nor knows how much he is promoting it.
... [H]e intends only his own security; and by directing that industry in such a manner as its
produce may be of the greatest value, he intends only his own gain, and he is in
this, as in many other cases, led by an invisible hand to promote an end
which was no part of his intention. Nor is it always the worse for the society
that it was no part of it. By pursuing his own interest he frequently promotes
that of the society more effectually than when he really intends to promote it.
I have never known much good done by those who affected to trade for the public
good. It is an affectation, indeed, not very common among merchants, and very
few words need be employed in dissuading them from it.
- Smith had great, nearly anarchistic confidence in that "invisible
hand". He was sure the hand would not lead to great inequalities. After all, he
said, "No society can surely be flourishing and happy, of which the far greater
part of the members are poor and miserable". Here Smith's near
anarchist-idealist confidence in "the market" was moderated by a nagging apprehension
about one of the great contradictions within European liberalism
[ID]
- The views of Adam Smith can be thought of as the foundational economic theory behind the
great liberal social and political revolution that was about to sweep over the European world. Adam
Smith was the original so-called "classical economist"
- English-born American radical
Thomas Paine
published Common Sense [TXT]
[TXT],
an early expression of social egalitarianism and democracy. Paine questioned the
natural relationship between laissez faire and democracy, a relationship many
followers of Adam Smith casually took for granted
- From the beginning Smith-style market economics and Paine-style democracy
existed side by side in a tense relationship. The contradictions between
"capitalism" and "egalitarianism"
were as important as the harmonies
- We also note tensions between laissez faire at home and imperialist
expansionism in the wider world. In non-European areas, mercantilism was being
replaced by direct European imperialist rule,
rather than by the new market economy which Adam Smith recommended.
In revolutionary USA, a mixed economy, involving central
authority in dynamic relationship with private enterprise, also reflected the US
fear of imperialist aggression, military or economic [ID]
- And then, 65 years later =
- 1841:1844; German political-economist
Friedrich List
made significant adjustments to Smithian principles, better to conform them to
the needs of late-blooming industrial modernization
- 1895:+; Among the several powerful 19th and 20th-century institutional/economic trends that Smith did not
foresee, none was more important than the "managerial
revolution"
- And then, 150 years after Adam Smith =
- 1930s, a time of global crisis of the free-market system, English
economist John Maynard Keynes offered a
neo-liberal model of national wealth which conceded a vital role to government
\\
- 2008ja18:TLS:7-8| Richard Bourke reviewed Gavin Kennedy's
Adam Smith's Lost Legacy
and other recent related scholarship. According to Bourke, Kennedy resolved
three related problems that arise from
Smith's laissez-faire or free-market choice theory =
(1) Can Smith's thought about personal communitarian obligation in the social and political spheres be reconciled
with self-interested individual freedom of choice in a free-market economic
sphere?
(2) Is civil society, in all its spheres
[ID], compatible with unbridled self-interest?
(3) Can commercial contractual arrangements harness self-interest?
- Kennedy found the answers to these questions in the complex relationship between
two books by Adam Smith,
the first neglected and the second more famous but by now only vaguely understood =
(1) 1759:The Theory of Moral Sentiments
(2) Seventeen years later, Wealth of Nations [above, at top of entry]
- By bringing these two texts together, Kennedy identified Smith's concept of “impartiality” as the solution
to the problems raised in the three questions above. Impartiality is a human trait that surmounts the “partiality”
of self-interest. Smith in this way becomes, for Kennedy, a theorist of social justice as well as of the free
market. For Smith, the central motivational ethical complex called “self-regard” included a component
of “selfishness”, but it contained much more than that. Social cohesion grows out of a natural human “identification”
with others, which in turn allows “impartiality” to thrive within the larger complex called “self-regard”.
Smith thus with his generously conceived “self-regard” dissolved the opposition between egoism and altruism.
(Compare this with Harold Lasswell's concept of “perceived interests” [TXT].)
- Bourke intervened at this point in his review to suggest a third and even earlier
text = Smith's 1751 lectures on rhetoric and criticism. This earliest text was first delivered
at Edinburgh and Glasgow universities but was destroyed at Smith's death. In 1958 the lectures were
teased out from student notes [See McKenna just below]. These lectures underpinned Smith's 1759 study of
morality which in turn underpinned his famous 1776 study of economics
- Stephen J. McKenna, Adam Smith: The Rhetoric of Propriety [Summit]
- Bourke explained how the two Smith texts emphasized by Kennedy were founded on these lectures = The rhetorical basis of human behavior
in company with others was, for Smith, “propriety” (to prepon in Greek,
decorum in
Latin). Smith leaned hard on his sense of appropriateness. Humans possessed a disposition not found in any
other “race of animals”. Humans were naturally disposed to coordinate behavior without any intended
direct benefit or explicit collaboration
- What about all those who extol the virtues of unfettered free-market choice and unregulated entrepreneurial
freedom, and attribute all this to Adam Smith? Bourke argued, in a tone we might
call haughty, that his ascending three-step explanation of the
evolution of Smith's thought -- from rhetoric to morals to economics -- is just too complicated and
subtle for all those who in the early 21st century seek, largely for partisan political reasons, “to
retrieve Smith from the deforming clutches of Hayekian economic dogma”
[ID]
- But, still, what do we make of Bourke's eye-opening observation that we need to identify a mechanism
within the body politic -- an institution -- to protect the boundaries of
community propriety and individual self-interest? This is not an economic or
moral or rhetorical question. It is a political/institutional question. Immediately
after raising the question and with his own rhetorical head fake, Bourke dodged
back into the misty shade of rhetorical
theory, avoiding the implied next step demanded by his own observation, a step into the political-institutional
sphere of the body-politic [ID]
- So we need to add one question to those explored by Kennedy and Bourke =
What mechanism or institution within the “body politic” patrols and
disciplines the boundaries of sociability and self-interest? There was that
evasive almost mythic idea of “the invisible hand” that spontaneously and
naturally regulates a large polity, that assures sociability where
self-interest reigns. This dreamy and strangely anarchistic idea has never been satisfactorily defined, nor has the hand
itself ever been described. It has never been subjected, so to speak, to
field identification. Kennedy's link between the two Smith texts, Moral
Sentiments and Wealth, and Bourke's addition of Rhetoric,
go only part way toward solution of this problem. The solutions suggested by
Kennedy and Bourke are hortatory rather than political
- D. P. O'Brien,
The Classical
Economists Revisited, summarizes in chapter
one the theoretical, political and industrial economic setting out of
which “classical economics” or “political economy” arose,
from Smith, through David Ricardo, James Mill and his son John Stuart Mill
<>1776jy04(NS):1791de15;
English New-World colonies | Fifteen most intense years of revolution began with the Declaration
of Independence
- Previous two years of negotiation and conciliation between the colonial
corporations and the English home country had failed
- 1776jy04:Thomas Jefferson erased "subjects" and wrote "citizens" instead as he drafted the Declaration of
Independence [2010jy03:ERG:A3 | James Billington, librarian of Congress, announced the discovery based on
sophisticated electronic screening of the original document. "It shows the progress of his mind. This was a
decisive moment. We recovered a magic moment that was otherÂwise lost to history."]
- 1778:France entered colonial revolutionary war on side of rebels and against the British
- 1779:Spain entered colonial revolutionary war on side of rebels and against the British.
England besieged Gibraltar and Minorca.
Minorca fell. Spain and France threatened English power in Ireland or maybe even south-coast
England with invasion
- 1781:1789; A new constitutional order created under the Articles of
Confederation, but they were found deficient from the beginning of the
eight-year infancy of revolutionary independence
- Revolutionary War with England raged almost from the moment of the convocation of the first
Continental Congress in 1774 [ID]
- After 200 years of "Old World" colonial
exploitation of the "New World", the New World was beginning to
take its destiny into its own hands
- 1786:International war was followed by what might be called "internal war", a critical
civilian political/institutional phase in which struggle between anti-colonial rebels and
the English (British) Empire was accompanied by internal domestic rebellion against colonial
elites. Only now was the American revolution fully under way
\\
*--John Ferling,
Almost a Miracle:
The American Victory in the War of Independence argues that international imperialist competition and intervention contributed
a great deal to the heroic victory of overmatched colonial freedom fighters
*--N. N. Bolkhovitinov,
Russia and the American Revolution
(1976)
<>1777se:Russian publisher
Nikolai Novikov wrote editorial in
the first issue of his Masonic journal Utrennii svet [Morning Light] & an essay
on education [Raeff3:62-86| More Novikov in
BL&T:59,117f]
\\
*--Isabella De Madariaga,
Politics and Culture in Eighteenth-century Russia:150-67
on Russian Masonic movement
*--Florovsky,5:148-56,170-5 critique of Freemasonry
<>1778:1779; English cleric William Coxe traveled in Russia and described his
observations of everyday life [VSB,2:423-8]
<>1778:1779; Swiss-born scholar,
philosopher and theologian Johann Gottfried
Herder (1744-1803) published Stimmen der Völker in Liedern [The
Peoples' Voices in Their Songs],
an anthology of various national folksongs, mainly German-language but also
Baltic- and Slavic-language songs, gathered in part during his university years in
Königsberg
[modern-day Kaliningrad, Russia, a port city on the far eastern Baltic seacoast] and teaching years in Riga
*--Herder was an
influential early voice of protest against the neo-classical trends of the
Enlightenment and an early influence on the movement called "Romanticism".
He was a leading figure in the German-language cultural movement called Sturm und Drang [storm and strife]
*--...On
Social and Political Culture
\\
*--Wagar on the era of Romanticism [TXT]
*--On Herder's political philosophy
[W]
<>1778:Hokkaido, Notkome (Nokkamapu, E of Nemuro)
was the point where Russians landed on Hokkaido, met with Matsumae servitor Araida Daihachi,
gave gifts, and requested establishment of trade relations. The daimyo of Matsumae
behaved according to the Japanese policy of national seclusion, a variation on
state-centered mercantilism, and insisted that
Russians not come again to
Hokkaido, Kunashiri or Etorofu (the two larger islands off the eastern coast of
Hokkaido; Russians had been on Etorofu at least since 1760)
*--Trade was possible only in the centrally controlled trade point, far to the
south at Nagasaki
*--If Russians needed food and wine, they were instructed to send Ainu agents
from Uruppu Island (the next island east from Etorofu in the lower Kuril chain, held then by Russians)
*--Russian/Japanese relations grew tense off the
eastern coastline of Hokkaido not far from the southern-most of the Kuril
Islands
\\
*--[W]
A
Japanese website gives history of the post World War II "four islands"
controversy [Kunashiri, Etorofu, Shikotan and Habomai islands] between Japan and
Russia
*--KEJ,6:340
*--Togawa"Russian and Slavic:3
*--SHJ,3:181-2
<>1779:Russian writer Mikhail Kheraskov published epic poem "The Rossiad" [KRR:401-5]
<>1779my:Russian thinker Denis Fonvizen, "Ta Hsüeh: Or that Great
Learning which Comprises Higher Chinese Philosophy" & other
political essays [Raeff3:88-105]. Fonvizen sought
to teach Chinese moral philosophy to Russians, especially to instill timeless
habits of virtue in those who would govern justly
<>1780:Russian Empress Catherine II (the Great) sponsored
"League of Armed Neutrality" to mediate the English-French war & protect
American Revolution from European powers. Beginnings of a century of amiability between
Russia & USA
\\
*--Saul,1:1-25
*--Clarence Manning,
Russian Influence on Early
America
*--N. N. Bolkhovitinov,
The Beginnings of Russian-American Relations, 1775-1815
<>1780s:1840s; For more than a half century,
Central Asian territories -- the Caucasus Mountains & Turkestan
-- were the goals of Russian
imperialist expansion
<>1781:Prussian [German-speaking]
university city Königsberg [ID]
was the academic home of Professor Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) who in this year
published his monumental philosophical work Kritik der reinen Vernunft
[Critique of
Pure Reason]
- Kant's core argument was that the truth of our "ideas" is
not dependent on conformity with the actual external world (as insisted in
empiricist philosophies). Instead, the truth of ideas, including ideas about the
external world itself, is dependent on conformity with the knowing structures of
the mind itself. Ideas either conform to the logical structures of the mind or
they are unknowable. Ideas that do not fit in the mind are incomprehensible,
much as FM radio signals are incomprehensible to the AM receiver
- Humans experience and shape ideas about phenomena, and these ideas can be very
elaborate and precise. Science is possible for that reason. Also for this
reason, one need not be a skeptic about knowledge in general. But the thing we
can know -- the phenomenon -- is not a "thing in itself" [Ding an sich]
- A "thing in itself" would be an unknowable noumenon. It may well be out
there, but the brain is not equipped to deal with it in any satisfactory way of
thinking. Serious human thought requires substance, dimension, weight, position,
and susceptibility to cause and effect. It has to "make sense" according to all
the truth tests built into the logical structures of the human mind, not
according to the intrinsic Ding an sich, not according to the essential
noumenal essence of the "thing in itself"
- Kant defined a set of "antinomies of the mind" that simply cannot be resolved (the
nature of time, space, gods, the freedom of the human will, etc.). Any logical
attempt to penetrate the realm of the noumenon or to resolve the antinomies of
the mind was bound to fail. The brain simply does not have the capacity to
succeed in these tasks. Humans had to fall back on esthetic and ethical ways
of dealing with these obdurate problems
- So, Kant conceded, however, that humans receive powerful impressions of the noumenal world. This is the world of esthetics, ethics, religion and
spiritualism. This is not the world of knowledge, strictly speaking
- Kant's concept of ethics troubled many. It has been labeled "the categorical
imperative". Two statements explain =
(1) "Act as if by your action you set a universal rule for all humanity", and
(2) "Always act in such a way that you and anyone else affected by your actions are treated as ends in themselves, not as
means to other ends"
- Two implications of Kant's thought of broadest cultural significance were
(1) his definition of the proper realm of reason, of science, of empiricism and logic, where esthetics
and ethics (e.g., religion) had no intellectually defensible authority, and
(2) his definition of the proper realm of esthetics and ethics, where
science (reason and empiricism) had no intellectually defensible authority
- Nonetheless, the Catholic Church put the works of Kant on its proscription list. Similarly, Communist ideology in
the 20th century condemned "Kantianism"
<>1782:USA. Hector St. John de Crèvecoeur, Letters from an American
Farmer [TXT]
See especially Letter #11 from "A Russian Gentleman". The hearty
yeoman farmer was much extolled on these
pages in a time of colonial rebellion in the name of independence from
mercantilist exploitation
<>1782:1783; Aleutian Island Amchitaka | Daikokuya Kodayu (1751:1828)
and crew of 17 thrown off course transporting rice from Ise to Tokyo. They drifted 8 months
before being cast ashore and transported by Russians to Siberia
- They taught Japanese language in Irkutsk at what might be the world's first
international studies center, founded by Professor Kiril (Erik was his Finnish
name) Laksman
- Laksman facilitated trip to Saint Petersburg where Daikokuya spend six months
in the court of Catherine II
- 1783:Kudo Heisuke(1783-1800) wrote Aka Ezo Fusetsu Ko [Account of
Reports about Red Hokkaidans (i.e., Russians)]. Kudo learned about Russia from
Russian adventurers he met on Hokkaido, plus Dutch associates and Dutch books,
e.g., Oude en nieuwe staat van't Russische of
Moskovsische Keizerryk; behelzende eene uitvoerige historie van Rusland en deszelfs
Groot-Vorsten, 2v (Utrecht:1744). Kudo ignored exaggerated fears and cunning Dutch warnings.
He
recommended closer commercial ties with Russia
- At this time Matsumae daimyo secretly approved trade with Russia around Kunashiri Island
(nearest of "the four islands" to Hokkaido). Kudo
suggested trade openly and influenced Bakufu shogun Tanuma Okitsugu to promote development
of Hokkaido in order to promote Japanese/Russian trade
- 1785:Tanuma sent 2 Japanese missions under Finance Commissioner to explore the Kurils
(Chishima) & Sakhalin. Resulted in 1786:Plan for economic development of this region
- No positive Russian governmental policy at work in these years, "only a somewhat
indifferent support given to the projects of officials and merchants in Siberia"
[Sansom, WWJ:213]. Japanese policy in this region was also slow to emerge.
"Informal" ways were found to loosen Russian mercantilist and Japanese
national-seclusion control over Japanese/Russian frontier
relationships
<>1783:Russian law on independent press created the possibility for
Nikolai
Novikov to become a great publisher
- Since 1779, Novikov lived in Moscow and managed the official presses of Moscow
University, now he was able to strike out on his own with these "privatized"
presses
- He became a central figure in a Moscow social and intellectual renaissance
that resulted in the formation of voluntary societies of the freemasonic lodge
type
- Aleksandr Radishchev, in his infamous publication Journey...,
touched on the question of press freedom and the need to abolish
censorship
- We could contrast Novikov and Radishchev in the following way = Novikov moved
to break the grip of social/service hierarchies in the life of Russia, while Radishchev tried to enlighten them in the name of progressive change. Radishchev
is more nearly the heir of Peter the Great
<>1783ap08:Russian annexation of Crimean Peninsula
represented further incursions into territory under authority of Ottoman Turks and brought
Crimean Tatars under Russian control,
after nearly 350 years of semi-independent
existence in alliance with the Ottomans [VSB,2:412-13]
*--Big 1200-year LOOP on "Crimea"
*--For success in the south, Russia still needed peace in the west. Catherine
had for three years worked to establish a closer relationship with Austrian
Emperor Joseph. She drew up a "Greek Project" which visualized a
reconstitution of the great Roman Empire with its dual capitals in Rome and Constantinople
[Istanbul], now relocated to Vienna and St.Petersburg
*--Potemkin for years urged annexation of large portions of the Balkan Peninsula [VSB,2:411-12] Such dreams of
Russian
imperialist expansion darkened relations with the Ottomans, but also made
Austrians suspicious, since much of their
vulnerable land-locked empire depended on their
control of certain Balkan territories. Far NW European powers, especially
England, became increasingly alarmed that Russia (rather than England) might
prosper most from the decline of Ottoman power
\\
*--A. W. Fisher,
The Russian Annexation of the Crimea, 1772-1783
*--On the era of the Greek Project, see ACG:235-55
<>1783my03:Catherine II extended
serfdom into Ukrainian territories [VSB,2:460]
<>1784:Alaska, Kodiak Island |
Grigorii Shelikhov, great Siberian fur trader,
established first Russian new-world colony. He was a poor merchant from Kursk
who made it big on the frontier. He displayed many of the wildly independent
ways of frontier entrepreneurs, establishing his own fortress port in the Kuril
Islands in order to facilitate trade with the Japanese in the north.
He drew up plans for vast Pacific-rim trade system, including exploration and development of
SE Siberian Amur River basin. Shipping to and from China and USA, to sell Pacific-rim products
and supply that area. With state backing, Shelikhov brought several enterprises together [VSB,2:477-8]
Alaska might have become the hub of an
energetic Russian presence in the New World, but that was not to be the case
*--His desire for monopoly control over Russian business on the Pacific
Rim was not realized in his time, but he may be thought of as a Russian precursor to
USA entrepreneur John Jacob Astor
*1795jy20:Shelikhov died and in the next
year, Catherine II as well. Now the obstacle to monopoly was removed, and the
most significant Russian version of the European
overseas corporation could be
founded, The Russian-America Company
<>1785:1812;
Second phase of the
“whale-oil age” [first], like all subsequent ages of global “energy politics”, involved
fierce competition between those nations capable of projecting their power
beyond national borders. It was a quarter-century struggle to control energy sources and all
markets essential to modern industrialization. In this instance, the principle
competitors were England, France, The Netherlands, and USA
- 1785:France, Paris | John Ledyard approached the US Ambassador
to France, Thomas Jefferson, with an outline of a surprising plan to open up the
Pacific Northwest for USA. Ledyard had sailed on Cook's legendary last voyage in
Pacific waters. He was now teamed with famous naval officer John Paul Jones to
launch this bold venture
- 1785:London | First US Ambassador to England, John Adams, encouraged English
Prime Minister William Pitt to purchase whale oil from New World firms. Adams
insisted that “the fat of the spermaceti-whale gives the clearest and most
beautiful flame of any substance that is known in nature, and we are surprised
that you prefer darkness, and consequent robberies, burglaries, and murders in
your streets, to the receiving, as a remittance, our spermaceti oil”.
[Stackpole,Whales:19-20]
- England courted the Nantucket whalers, tried to woo them away from the brash
new USA, and the whalers were willing to consider English proposals. British
authority could no longer be maintained off MA shores, so England tried to
convince Yankee whalers as individual companies to relocate in certain English
ports. The English understood that the Nantucket whalers as a unit would have
driven English companies out of business. The English sought to divide and
conquer
- 1786sp:London negotiations between Charles Jenkinson (Lord Hawkesbury) and
Nantucket whaler, William Rotch, Sr.
- Jenkinson was the leading figure in Pitt's Board of Trade, a cabinet-level
governmental institution newly created to promote English imperialist commerce,
to make necessary adjustments in view of recent loss of the American colonies.
In this connection, Jenkinson was closely invested in the future success of the
English overseas corporations, the East India Co. and the South Sea Co.
Nantucket whalers provided a possible guarantee for success of Jenkinson's
neo-mercantilist objectives, if he could woo them to the English flag. If he
failed, Nantucket was a major threat to his success. His method was haughty
intimidation. He employed the English overseas corporations to exclude outsiders
from the Indian Ocean and even the Pacific. Cook's science, British naval power,
and the financial clout of the English overseas corporations could be
manipulated together to give Jenkinson that possibility. It goes without saying
that this was not a market-economic or laissez faire moment in the establishment
of English imperial or global financial dominance
- 1786je07:English Parliament, guided by Pitt and Jenkinson, passed the “Act for
the Encouragement of the Southern Whale Fishery”. England in the years after the
Revolutionary War sought to displace New World whale fishermen with English, and
thus to gain control over the whale-oil era
- William Rotch, Sr., represented Quaker Nantucket whalers and was impervious
to Jenkinson's aristocratic arrogance. He was also inspired by a very different
vision of global commerce. He thought of the high seas as international waters,
and the products harvested there in some sense a possession to which the whole
world, rather than one nation, ought to have access. He was one of the first,
certainly the first active and crucial, example of an international businessman
and a consistent advocate of free markets
- He saw how the English intended to break up the Nantucket whalers, force them
to leave their homes, and blend them into Jenkinson's neo-mercantilist
corporation. He understood that he was not without devices of his own. He could
play one power against the other. He thus set out for France where he opened the
Dunkirk port (and thus the whole European market) to Nantucket whalers
- Jefferson and Adams began to see the importance of restoring US dominance in
this global commerce
- 1791:Philadelphia | Thomas Jefferson, Report of the
Secretary of State on the Subject of the Cod and Whale Fisheries
[Stackpole:9]
- 1793:Nantucket whalers were recovered from Revolutionary War losses and
competing successfully with the English neo-mercantile corporations. Nantucket
bottoms often carried Russian hemp homeward for manufacture into cordage for the
growing fleet
- In these years, an occasional Russian whaling adventure might be launched, as
was that of Count Aleksandr R. Vorontsov
- 1786de:Count Vorontsov and Count Aleksandr A. Bezborodko composed a memo
affirming Russia's claim to the islands and coasts of North America [DIR3:149-51]
- 1787je21:Lieutenant General Ivan Yakobii, Governor General of Siberia, issued
secret instructions to agents of Grigorii Shelikhov to establish
Russian claim to newly discovered parts of
Alaska [DIR3:151-2]
- But Russia made no persistent effort to enter
the fisheries. When Count Rumiantsev financed and launched a whaler into the
North Sea, an English ship, disguised under a French flag, seized and burned it
[BrE,29:230-1] Companies of brief existence made shy effort at the high seas
hunt; the Russian-America Co. smothered any initiatives in that direction.
Whatever Peter the Great's hopes and more recent ambitions like those of
Shelikhov, it was clear that Russia was not yet ready to
launch itself on global seaways
- The War of 1812 again brought ruin to the American whaling industry, but soon
a third and most grand phase of the
whale-oil age followed
- Global market in slaves, spices and other valuables created the sea-going
capability that allowed the harvesting of whales from the great oceans, and that
same market brought the whole world -- not just those who were among the early
"industrializing" peoples -- more or less simultaneously into the process called
the industrial revolution
\\
*--Stackpole,Whales [noUO]
<>1785ap20:Russian Empress Catherine II issued her
Charter
for the nobility and Charter for the towns. She considered a Charter to state peasants
- Charter
for the nobility loosened state authority in the lives of gentry
landowners, serfowners and aristocrats, granting them the right to meet regularly in their
own local and provincial assemblies [VSB,2:413-15 |
KRR:244-6 |
DSD,1:158-70 | DIR2:108-111 |
DIR3:113-17]
- Catherine expanded upon and moved in different directions from Peter III's concessions to nobles
[ID]. This moment marked
the legal demise of the functional distinction between pomeshchik
[ID] and votchinnik
[ID].
Henceforward, all land-owning nobles may be called "gentry" or pomeshchiki.
Russian aristocrats were now granted privileges, exemptions and only vaguely presumed
duties, and, most of all, freed from the LEGAL obligation to serve the state (though not often free of the ECONOMIC obligation to serve the state)
- Perhaps her greatest innovation was the granting of an institutional home for
regional nobles, the gentry assembly. But even here, the assembly was licensed
by the state and given no real independent authority beyond certain local issues
of gentry concern. The historical test of
gentry political vitality in their assemblies came a half-century later, in
1856-1861, and they failed that test
- Some have thought of
this as the "emancipation of the Russian nobility", but
Mikhail Speranskii, a reforming minister one
generation later, did not see it that way. Some have claimed to see a
historical parallel between the two great 18th-century aristocratic resurgences,
one in France [EG] and the other in Russia. However,
the institutional and social qualities of the parlement of Paris, for example, and the many
Russian provincial gentry assemblies were of entirely different orders of
historical experience
- The 300-year-old two-tiered formation of medieval
Russian social elites was now de facto dead and buried, though titles of feudal rank were retained = prince, count, baron.
The memory of feudal grandeur never died among the
old aristocratic families and the aspirations for it never weakened among pomeshchiki.
Yet the old titles
were increasingly little more than honorific natal appellations, signifying no
real political, social or economic independence. To be an aristocrat mainly
vouchsafed a significant "insider advantage" in life, but an advantage defined, protected and controlled by the autocratic state.
It was in the interests of a heritable royal monarchy both to neutralize
aristocracy and to protect noble formal titles and structures. A stately but
hollowed-out elite decorated imperial palaces
- Russian text
- Charter for the towns [VSB,2:4415-18|
KRR:321-4]
set out to give formal legal definition to the six categories of urbanites. It
authorized formation of an institution of urban governance (or at least
self-administration) though a City Duma [gorodskaia duma]. Catherine II
gave every appearance of wanting to free cities to some degree from prevailing
Russian
social/service hierarchies and to nudge them in the direction of
general European urban vitality. The City Duma did set
down institutional roots in Petersburg and Moscow. And there it did serve to
provide an institutional arena in which urbanized nobles and civic-minded
merchants could develop habits of mutual and productive political sociability.
The City Duma, however, did not flourish in many other Imperial
towns, and the institution suffered from official neglect for almost a century
- Griffiths, David, and George Munro, eds.,
Catherine II's Charters of
1785 to the Nobility and the Towns (1991) Includes text of charter to
state peasants which was not promulgated.
Fifty years would pass before state
peasant reform was attempted
- The awkward system of Imperial social/service hierarchies was one of the two
obdurate pillars of the Russian old regime political culture (the other being bureaucratic and
autocratic absolutism)
\\
ABOUT NOBILITY =
*--Blum:345-66 (on noble ascendancy) [NB! phrase "feminine illogic" (350)]
*--Jones, Emancipation [BYD]
ABOUT URBANITES =
*--J. Michael Hittle,
The Service City:
State and Townsmen in Russia, 1600-1800 [Excerpted
TXT]
*--V. T. Bill,
The Forgotten Class: The Russian Bourgeoisie from the Earliest Beginnings
to 1900
<>1786:1791; English New-World colonial Revolution
moved out of its more famous military phase and through the crucial 5-year civilian political and institutional phase. The United
States of America [USA] created itself as a new sovereign (independent) but federated state (with coordinated central and
provincial power). This process was not without serious internal factional conflict =
- 1786:1787; USA Shays rebellion against economic hardships
suffered by small-holding farmers in the first years of rebellion against English power. Was
this an American revolution within the American Revolution?
- 1787se17(NS):Philadelphia | New Constitution to replace Articles of
Confederation signed and submitted for ratification
by the people of the thirteen states
- Problem of slavery vexed American freedom fighters, but the "founding
fathers" discovered a way to design a liberal constitution to govern over free and
bound citizens (for certain purposes, a slave was counted as 3/5 a citizen). In these
years Vermont and Massachusetts abolished slavery, and
Pennsylvania adopted a policy of gradual emancipation
- 1787fa:1788sp; Debate on new USA Constitution was joined by
Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay in "The Federalist Papers"
[W] [Section
of essay on Federalist]
- "Anti-federalists" joined the debate.
Be careful about the
natural confusions in the use of the terms "federalist" and "anti-federalist"
- 1788je21:New Hampshire became ninth state to ratify, thus the Constitution can be
said to be in effect. However, the new Union would not come into effect without further ratification
and election of a new government under the new Constitution
- 1789:USA | The first national government was elected and took office
- 1789:USA Tariff and Tonnage Acts secured a measure of
privilege and advantage for USA ships and traders, warding off the vigorous
naval commercial powers France and, mainly, England. After revolutionary
success, the union now had to be consolidated. The newly formed central
government felt nothing would consolidate its position better than direct aid to
the developing American economy
- "Founding father" Alexander Hamilton was a vigorous proponent of industrial economic development, and he was
thinking less of yeomen farmers than of
bankers, manufacturers, and commercial traders
- Hamilton promoted development of internal economic ties, e.g., north with south, and advised against dependence
on overseas economic ties. He was alert to the nature of imperialist competition for markets, opportunities for expansion in
undeveloped territories, and the dangers of foreign intrusion into the new and weakened US domestic economy. His statist
views on standing militias and navies, on taxes and the general problem of raising government revenue to support vital
centralized national functions, were clearly stated in "The Federalist Papers", particularly in
numbers 30-36
[excerpts]
- 1790:Alexander Hamilton summarized his views in
A Report on Manufactures
[Excerpt#1
| Excerpt#2 |
Excerpt#3].
His short term goal was to protect independence in time of war. He proposed that
government factories produce essential naval, artillery and other military
hardware. Soon Pierre Samuel Du Pont de Nemours
& Son and Eli Whitney [ID] answered the
call for an independent military manufacture. Rather then support direct
government factories, they laid the foundations for a compromise between private
and government involvement, a compromise that foreshadowed the 20th-century
"military-industrial complex". However, Hamilton's long-term and central goal
was not "military-industrial" at all. He sought transformation of agricultural-plantationist
USA into a modern industrial economy
- Hamilton was influenced by a political opponent, the old Tory economic
thinker Tench Coxe, whose publication, A View of the Manufactures of the
United States (1790), urged that rapid industrialization was "the means of
the POLITICAL SALVATION" of the revolutionary new union. Hamilton thus concluded
that revolutionary political innovation had to be joined with economic
innovation if the revolution were to survive. This was a novelty of world-wide
significance = a dash of old mercantilism to fortify the new
Adam-Smithian market economy. A
revolutionary, federated but centralized and democratic republic might still
find use in governmental protection of homeland enterprise from outside
dominance, but with an eye to strengthening the union and contributing to the
wealth of the whole nation, rather than to the grandeur of the centralized
state. Hamilton's system shifted emphasis from the state to private enterprise.
Government should promote, support and protect a vigorous national economy,
rather than vice versa, in the traditional mercantilist formula. How else was a
fledgling "underdeveloped" country to protect itself against more economically
developed, powerful and aggressive competing nations?
- One-half century earlier, Russian Emperor Peter I became the original
economic modernizer in a vulnerable, primitive, agricultural nation. He had only
the smallest inkling of Hamilton's developmental economics, and he had no
instinct for social independence
(LOOP on "Petrine economic policy"). A
half century later, German economist Friedrich List
insisted on social freedom and what we might call the "Hamiltonian"
economic insight. List did this after first considering the experience of Russia
and USA
- 1791fe:USA House of Representatives created the Bank of the United States.
The Bank represented a compromise between private financial interests and state
control, all aimed at promoting and protecting USA economic development
- The political issue of the day was not whether there should be strict
adherence to the principle of laissez faire or not. Almost all agreed,
compromise between political power and economic development was essential. The
issue was how broadly the benefits of state supported economic modernization
could be distributed throughout the whole nation [thus the importance of Shays
Rebellion (above) and the challenge posed by Thomas Paine's
ideas]
- It soon became clear that the new constitutional system was not complete without a
Bill of Rights
(first ten amendments to the new constitution required before the document would
"work" and the American Revolution would be complete)
\\
*--Alan Kimball on the "Federalist Papers" as an ensemble, part of a longer [TXT] dealing
with the revolutionary ideology of James Madison
*--Wagar on the intellectual climate in early revolutionary USA [TXT]
*--John C. Miller,
Alexander Hamilton
*--Thomas Govan,
Nicholas Biddle, Nationalist and Public Banker
*--A LITTLE REBELLION NOW AND THEN,
a 30-minute dramatization of the American Revolution, culminating in Shays' Rebellion and the framing of the Constitution
<>1786au05:Catherine II decreed ambitious educational
reform [VSB,2:464-5 | DIR3:118-121,
with 1782:1800; Statistics on Russian education]
<>1787:1788;
Siberian & Russian travels of John Ledyard
= John Ledyard's
Journey…, 1787-1788: The Journal and Selected Letters (1966). In
Paris Ledyard approached USA Ambassador to France Thomas Jefferson with a
proposal that he and his partner, the famous Revolutionary War commander John
Paul Jones, be chartered as a company to develop USA posts in the Vancouver
Island area of Oregon Territory. He got no support, so he turned to Russian
Empress Catherine II. Without clear permission from her, he set out on foot for
the Siberian Pacific Rim. Grand but vague ambitions drove him. He was detained
in Yakutsk and eventually escorted out of Russia back to Europe
<>1787:1792;
Russian
imperialist expansion southward provoked war with Ottoman Turks
<>1787:Mikhail Shcherbatov,
"Petition..." and "Pace of Russia's Modernization" [Raeff3 :50-60]. The essay on modernization [56-60] represented
a pioneer effort to identify the main elements of the powerful concept. Notice how
Shcherbatov was free of the concept "Westernization"; in fact he warned
against paths toward modernization that imitated the paths of other nations
*--Shcherbatov is most famous for his
On the Deterioration of Russian Morals
[English-Russian text; Excerpts= VSB,2:465-7]
<>1787:Russian bride Avdot’ia Bogdanova's
dowry expressed qualities of
a noble woman's everyday life [KRR:354-6]
*1796:Varvara Bakunina accompanied her husband, a commander in the
Persian (Iranian) campaigns, and wrote valuable
memoirs of the campaign [DRW:216-20]
*--Description of
everyday life of Russian court in these years [VSB,2:418-21]
<>1788ja19:Australia at Botany Bay | First
English fleet landed, "transporting" political and civil criminals to
"assignment" [forced labor]. Settlement of Australia began.
"Transport" was English policy over the
next 80 years (to 1868 when the last convoy deposited its load of Irish rebels
against
English imperial dominion). In all 825 shiploads carried an average "payload" of
ca. 200 prisoners and a grand total of approximately 165,000 exiles. Over these
80 years, Australia was the "English Siberia". Here is a brief legal history =
- 1597:English "Acte for Punyshment of Rogues, Vagabonds and Sturdy Beggars"
declared that criminals "shall...be banished out of this Realm ... and shall be
conveyed to such parts beyond the seas as shall be ...assigned by the Privy Council".
If they returned, these rogues would be
hanged. New World America was just such a site "beyond the seas".
- 1717:English policy of criminal "transportation" intensified by new royal
acts
- 1776: "Hulks Act" added forced convict labor clause to the emerging English
system of political and criminal exile. This was a form of
slavery called "assignment". American
Revolution forced English to find a new New World
Four phases =
(1) 1787:1810; Intense 23-year period in which England worked
to meet (a) domestic and (b) international political/economic goals =
(a) Clear itself of the most dangerous representatives of the "criminal
class" (deracinated villagers [ID] and economically
ruined urban wage-laborers)
(b) Establish a British imperial strategic presence in the SE Pacific
basin. Then =
(2) 1811:1830; Siphon off growing labor discontent and supply growing labor
needs of Australia where there was "a ravenous demand for convict labor"
(3) 1831:1840; System came under anti-slavery pressure in England and in Australia, though
it still worked as part of the English struggle to suppress and disperse opposition to its
imperial dominion in Ireland. Then =
(4) 1841:1868; Value of slave labor declined. "Smart money" found it
easier to oppose slavery
\\
*--Robert Hughes,
The Fatal Shore:40-1, 63-7, 143-4, 161-2, 181-202. English
criminal transport is shown to be a rough draft or "sketches for the immense [Soviet] Gulags of the twentieth century". Hughes could have placed
English "transport" in an even broader historical context of
prior examples
and later examples of removal, concentration, forced labor and frontier development, repeating
itself on many occasions prior to the infamous 20th-century Nazi and Soviet systems
<>1789:1815;
26-year
ERA OF FRENCH REVOLUTION and NAPOLEONIC WARS
-
1789au26:"Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen"
[TXT]
laid out a revolutionary social vision that severely pared the privileges and
exemptions of the two ascendant Old-Regime social estates (Clergy and
Aristocracy) in favor of empowering the "Third Estate", the vast majority of
"commoners". Old regime social hierarchy came under attack
- On French Revolutionary "terror"
- English writer on agricultural themes, Arthur Young (1741-1820), traveled in
France on the eve and during the early phases of the French Revolution. He left
a fascinating and detailed account of daily life, Travels During the Years
1787, 1788, 1789, and 1790 [TXT]
[Excerpt TXT]
- A decade earlier Young published an equally detailed account of his Tour
in Ireland, concentrating on the NW border territories of Protestant
Northern Ireland
[TXT].
Protestant Northern Ireland was one of the enduring wounds caused by the
Protestant Revolution which began nearly three
centuries earlier. Violence punctuated the next 200 years in the
relationship of Protestant Northern Ireland and the main body politic of
Catholic Ireland
\\
*--Andrei Lobanov-Rostovsky,
Russia and Europe, 1789-1825
<>1789:English scholar and powerful social theorist Jeremy Bentham,
An
Introduction to the Principles of Morals & Legislation
[TXT]
*--Bentham originated the influential doctrines of "Utilitarianism" in which the
final arbiter of "truth" and "significance" was the utility, the usefulness, or
the practical workability for the person or groups of persons affirming "truth"
and "significance". Bentham elaborated a universal, dual motive force at work in
human behavior, "pleasure" and "pain". Humans strive to maximize pleasure and
minimize pain in everything they do. Becoming very meticulous, Bentham measured
pleasure and pain according to their intensity, duration, certainty, propinquity
[proximity or closeness to the person experiencing the sensation], fecundity
[fertility, ability to produce consequences], purity and extent. The public
criterion of morality and ethics should be the greatest good for the greatest
number.
<>1789:Japan, Ezo [Hokkaido] | Last great Ainu rebellion. Matsumae authority extending over island
\\
*--KEJ,2:238
<>1789je08:USA Revolutionary leader James
Madison's speech proposed amendment of
the constitution by the addition of a "Bill of Rights"
[TXT]
[W]
*1789jy14:Paris the scene of the storming of the Bastille. The French Revolution
was fully under way
*1791de15:USA | First ten amendments ratified, the culminating moment in the
seventeen year history of the American Revolution
<>1790:English politician and political theorist
Edmund Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France
[W],
became perhaps the most important statement of English conservative political ideology
*--Burke's book-length letter to a young Frenchman dealt, in order, with two big
historical issues. First, he interpreted the meaning of English political
tradition in order to show how inappropriate revolutionary politics were there.
Yes, there had been revolutionary disorders (the Puritan Revolution
[ID]
and the “Glorious Revolution” [ID]), yet
Burke explained how these times of seeming change were in fact in perfect
harmony with the historical character of the English people and sacred political
customs of the British nation. Only after stating his key political positions
and nesting them in actual English political practice -- and that took up nearly
half his text -- did he then offer his specific and detailed critique of French
revolutionary events and institutions, judging them in relationship to his
conservative sense of English superiority
*--Here are four quotes from the first half of his book that epitomize his
conservative political philosophy =
- “When ancient opinions and rules of life are taken away, the loss cannot
possibly be estimated. From that moment we have no compass to govern us; nor can
we know distinctly to what port we steer.”
- “One of the first and most leading principles on which the commonwealth and
the laws are consecrated” is this = If “temporary possessors and life-renters in
it, unmindful of what they have received from their ancestors or of what is due
to their posterity, should act as if they were the entire masters”, and they
presume themselves capable of “changing the state as often, and as much, and in as many ways as
there are floating fancies or fashions”, the result will be “the whole chain and continuity of the
commonwealth would be broken. No one generation could link with the other. Men
would become little better than the flies of a summer.”
- “A state without the means of some change is without the means of its
conservation.”
- “A disposition to preserve and an ability to improve, taken together, would be
my standard of a statesman. Everything else is vulgar in the conception,
perilous in the execution.”
<>1790se04:Catherine II issued decree punishing Russian state servitor and
political theorist Aleksandr Radishchev (-1802) for his
Journey
from Saint Petersburg to Moscow [partial TXT] [Excerpts:
RRC2,2:261f |
VSB,2:467-8 | DIR2:112-24 |
DIR3:122-35]
*1792:Radishchev, "On Man, His Morality & Immorality" [Edie,1:77-100]
*--More Radishchev [LDH:17-31]
\\
*--Blum:560-74 chronicles the mounting tide of
criticism aimed against the shameful institution of
serfdom
*--Allen McConnell,
A Russian "Philosophe" Alexander
Radishchev, 1749-1802 (1964)
*--2007 "Person of the Year", according to the magazine
TIME, was
Vladimir Putin. The article devoted attention to Radishchev's Journey [TXT]
<>1791de29:Ottoman
Turks ceded northern shore of Black Sea to Russia in Jassy Treaty, ending five years
of war. Russian imperialist expansion showing success in the
south
and west
<>1792:English
writer, Mary Wollstonecraft, inspired by the French Revolutionary Declaration of
the Rights of Man and of the Citizen [ID], published
her pioneering assertion of women's rights,
Vindication of the Rights of Women [PWT2:180-4]
*--Wollstonecraft later married English radical
anarchist William Godwin
*--She was an early representative of the new era's typical self-supporting writing
professional, and she left a large body of published work
[ID]
<>1792:Tibetan Dali Llama now appointed by
Chinese authorities. Independence of
Tibet now and for the next 200+
years compromised by several great powers
<>1792ap13:Catherine II ordered police to search the
Moscow home and rural estate of Nikolai Novikov. She also launched investigation
of Novikov's extraordinary wealth (and entrepreneurial independence)
- Zealous officials quickly turned this into a witch hunt for participants in
vaguely defined "Martinist" or Freemasonic conspiracies of "Illuminati".
Catherine despised the mystic and secret qualities of the Freemasonic movement.
Mysticism offended her enlightened "this-worldliness". Secrecy was not
objectionable, in principle. Imperial rule relied on secrecy. But secrecy among
her subjects
threatened state control and suggested that something like independence might
exist in the social realm, something like "civil society". She nurtured little buds of
public activism, but she wanted her Enlightenment securely in a hot-house, under
the control of the master gardener, the Empress herself
- Catherine feared that a conspiracy was basing itself on her detested son
Paul, who would succeed her on the throne. This fear combined with events in
Paris where the French Revolution now was toppling the king
- Novikov was subjected to horrifying
interrogation in the Schluesselburg fortress, then sent into Siberian exile.
Imperial officials sensed Novikov's challenge to
social/service hierarchies
<>1792su:1793sp; Okhotsk Sea down Kuril
Islands to Hokkaido
at Nemuro, then to Hakodate by sea, then overland to Matsumae headquarters |
Russian explorer and diplomat, Lieutenant Adam Kirillovich Laksman (1766-1796?) led an expedition organized by
Laksman's father and supported by Catherine the Great.
One purpose was to take home two Japanese "castaways" (one was Daikokuya
[ID]). Main purpose = to explore
possibility of laying foundation for Russian-Japanese commercial relations
- Laksman was Russia's first envoy to Japan. Although Japanese officials had him escorted under heavy armed
guard, he was received with hospitality. Laksman conferred with shogun's representatives Ishikawa
Shogen & Murakami Daigaku. Laksman asked daimyo of Matsumae to inform the Japanese government that Russians
were headed for Tokyo as "neighboring allies" and not as "antagonistic and infidel adversaries"
- Russians were allowed to winter at Akkeshi in a settlement they built near a
Japanese frontier or colonial village [SIE,8:382|
KEJ,6:341]
- Japanese officials accepted the returned castaways, but L was restrained from going to
Tokyo. Officials returned Laksman’s credentials & refused to discuss trade unless L went
to the main open port, Nagasaki, with only one of his ships [KEJ,6:341]
They issued him a permit to go to Nagasaki, but Laksman did not go. He returned to Russia
with his permit. Over next couple of years, plans to use permit lapsed with the death of Laksman and others initially
interested in the project
- 1791:Hayashi Shihei [as named in SHJ,3. Name = Rin Shihei in Sansom,WWJ:213]
did much to heighten awareness in Tokyo of the significance of Russians in the
north. He published theoretical work about the problems of a maritime state, Kaikoku Heidan.
He criticized the policy of the ruling Tokugawa which did not allow construction of
large vessels. Regent Sadanobu who understood the justice of Hayashi's
warning nonetheless arrested him. Russians were everywhere. They were settled on Uruppu
Island by this time. Also, the Ainu on Kunashiri were rebellious
- 1793:Hayashi Shihei published Sangoku tsuran zusetsu [Illustrated Survey
of 3 Countries] which showed Hokkaido territory stretching from the lower regions of
the Amur River to Kamchatka. But
generally Hokkaido territory was described somewhat less ambitiously =
1. Matsumae (southern tip where the powerful Japanese
family ruled)
2. Higashi Ezo (East Hokkaido, or Pacific littoral)
3. Nishi Ezo (Okhotsk Sea coast)
4.
Kita Ezo (Northern Hokkaido) or Oku Ezo (Upper Hokkaido), meaning Sakhalin
Island [Karafuto]
5. Ezo ga Chishima (Ezo's
1000 islands), meaning Kuril Islands
- 1793:Sadanobu ordered coastal defenses, inspected Izu and Sagami coasts
- Appearance of Laksman caused much alarm in Tokyo;
hastened 1794:Sadanobu's resignation [SHJ, 3:202] The
unfortunate castaway Daikokuya was arrested. Japanese-Russian relations
shifted from commerce to frontier competition
\\
*--Alan Kimball, "Russia and Japan Expand to Their Pacific Frontiers..." [TXT part two]
*--KEJ,2:238, 3:45, 4:327
*--PH&G:776
*--Lensen,Push
*--Sansom, WWJ:214
<>1793:English theorist Bentham, Manual of Political Economy
<>1793ja10:Catherine II first learned of
execution of French King Louis XVI [Eye:250]
*--Empress Catherine soon issued a decree severing relations with France [VSB,2:422]
<>1793mr27:Russian decree announced
second partition of Poland (cooperatively with
Prussia) [VSB,2:422-3]
<>1794:1925; Persia was ruled by the Qajar Dynasty
*1794:1896;
The first century of Qajar Dynasty [TXT]
preceded the era of Iranian (Persian)
modernization [SAC LOOP picks up in early 20th-c Iran]
<>1794:Tokyo. Katsuragawa Hoshu interrogated castaway Daikokuya
(793jy:GO). Daikokuya a bright person, praised by FRN navigator Lesseps, uncle of
Ferdinand, so had much to say. Wrote Kratkie... (Hokusa)[pdg] [Togawa"Russian and
Slavic:4-5]. K=mdx (6th mmb of K fmy appointed mdx to shogun), tgt at Tokugawa mdx.scl
Igakukan, & svt of zpd, esp.Dutch. ~~Dejima factory mdx Peter Thunberg & trade
commissioner Izaak Titsingh. K interviewed NED~~ bfr interrogation, so had knowledge.
K~~Maeno Ryotaku & Sugita Gempaku, 1st trans. of anatomy kng, Kulmus, Johann Adam a
Dutch version of Anatomische Tabellen, Ontleedkundige Tafelen (1793) =
Kaitai
shinsho (1774) [KEJ, 4:173. PH&G:265]
<>1794:USA CN New Haven | Eli Whitney and his partner,
a plantation manager from GA, began manufacture of the first practical cotton
gin, bringing industrial methods to the great international cash crop of the
slave south. Look at an animation of the cotton gin at work
[W]
*1798:Whitney built a firearms factory nearby. Muskets could now be "mass
produced" with standardized and interchangeable parts. Whitney thus helped
consolidate the Hamiltonian vision of a strong US
manufacturing economy independent of other national economies but closely
coordinated with, and in defense of, US national goals
<>1794:Russian/Ukrainian spiritual philosopher
Grigorii
Skovoroda died at 72, leaving fascinating manuscripts [Edie,1:17-62]
\\
The introduction to the several selections in
Edie
says that Skovoroda "taught an epistemological, metaphysical, and ethical
dualism which he nevertheless attempted to unify within a 'pantheistic'
conception of the invisible and necessary law of Nature which is God. It is
clear that, even though he was a profoundly religious thinker whose chief
inspiration was the Bible, his philosophy is highly 'unorthodox' in the several
senses of that word. According to his biographer, V. Ern, he spent his life in
'mute, unconscious opposition' to the official Church. Zenkovsky says his
thought shows a sympathy for paganism (and for Plato's 'erotic' anthropology)
which is not found in any other thinker of his day. When Skovoroda puts the
'soul's peace' above every other consideration, he means to include the
ecclesiastical as well as the secular institutions of his time"
<>1794fe05 (NS):Paris | Leader of the French
Revolutionary Committee of Public Safety, Maximilien Robespierre (1758-1794),
delivered a speech explaining and defending its "reign of terror"
[W]
<>1795:Poland suffered
third and final partition, despite vigorous military-revolutionary
resistance of Polish forces commanded by General Tadeusz Kosciuszko, fighting on two
fronts against Prussian and Russian forces
*--Kosciuszko had earned "his revolutionary spurs" in
1777-1780 as a commander of rebel colonial troops against English imperialism in
North America
*--Poland did not reappear as an
independent nation-state for 123 years, at
the end of World War One, in November 1918
*--Russian imperialist or frontier expansion now
with greater ease pointed east again
\\
Miecislaus
Haiman, Kosciuszko in the American revolution
<>1795:1834; English "Speenhamland Law" obstructed creation of a free
wage-labor
market, even as industrialization rushed ahead
*--As the old manorial and village-based economic systems came under pressure
from aristocratic but entrepreneurial English landlords, "inclosure laws" [sometimes
"enclosure"] transferred authority of common lands from villagers to various
elites more attuned to the opportunities of modern market practices and more
closely associated with the ambitions of increasingly powerful centralized
nation-states. This was nothing less than a slow historical expropriation of
customary medieval peasant village authority over certain pastures and
plow-lands, and it had been going on for more than two centuries
[EG]
*1700:1760; English inclosures of village lands = 300,000 acres
*1761:1801; English inclosures of village lands = 3,000,000 acres
*--Inclosure was widespread in early modern Europe, and it intensified
in the 17th and 18th centuries. By the late 19th century, rural populations dwindled to to a fraction of the
over-all population, now largely urbanized
[MAPS of English inclosures]
[MAP of English inclosures, closeup]
[MAP of Swedish open-field village]
[MAP of peasant status and early industrialization in post-French Revolutionary Europe]
[MAP illustrating 1851-1911 migrations of English people from
rural to urban industrialized areas]
[Recent decline of rural population, "farmers", in USA]
*--Along with inclosures, practices of
wage-labor spread into the countryside
\\
*--Karl
Polanyi,
The Great Transformation, took the forty year history
of the "Speenhamland Law" (1795-1834) as the major illustration of his main arguments
<>1796se16:Russia | Nearing the
end of her 34-year reign, one of Catherine II's last acts was a decree on
censorship [VSB,2:469]
*--Censorship was a major target of
Aleksandr Radishchev's
critical-reformist book Journey [TXT]
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