Function-Based Support at School: Summaries of Research Examples

Function-Based Support at School: Summaries of Research Examples

Tary J. Tobin, Ph.D.

University of Oregon

Note: For more information or to provide feedback, contact Tary Tobin, Educational and Community Supports, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97403-1235, (541) 346-1423, ttobin@oregon.uoregon.edu

Advance Organizer
Links
Escaping and Avoiding
Adult Attention
Peer Attention
Preferred Activities
Multiple Functions
Combining
References
Answers

Advance Organizer [top]

This booklet contains examples of actual situations (the student's names were changed to protect confidentiality), drawn from a literature review (Tobin, 2000) of research reports of effective, function-based support at school for individual students with problem behaviors. Successful, positive interventions were developed as a result of functional behavioral assessment (FBA) that led to ideas for ways the students could have their needs meet and cope with situations that were difficult for them without resorting to inappropriate behavior. For each example, one page explains the situation and describes the results of the (FBA) according to the Competing Behavior Model (O'Neill et al., 1997). At the bottom of that page is a place for you to stop and think about what type of intervention you might develop in that situation or ask questions if you are leading a group discussion. On the next page (or in the "Answers" section), the actual support plan that effectively reduced the problem behavior is described, along with the types of measures used to evaluate the outcomes.

Use the examples to study the process of linking concepts from the Competing Behavior Model to behavior support for an individual student's specific situation. Elements of the intervention examples may suggest ideas when you are brainstorming possible interventions for students for whom you have conduced FBAs. However, keep in mind that tailoring interventions to a unique student's particular circumstances is essential and that, although the interventions reported here were successful, you may be able to develop different interventions that are even more effective. Function-based support can bring about exciting changes for the benefit of students when school staff take a creative, problem-solving approach to understanding the dynamics of the interactions among a student's needs and strengths and his or her environmental situation. By focusing on factors under the control of school staff, and taking responsibility for changing factors that the FBA results suggest would make a difference, school staff not only meet the requirements of Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, 1997), they also demonstrate accountability for using professionally recognized best practice, and, most importantly, make a difference in the life of the student.

For more information about FBA, the Competing Behavior Model, and function-based support, see the following references and Web sites:

O'Neill, R. E., Horner, R. H., Albin, R. W., Sprague, J. R., Storey, K., & Newton, J. S. (1997). Functional assessment and program development for problem behavior: A practical handbook. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.

Sugai, G., Lewis-Palmer, T., & Hagan, S. (1998). Using functional assessments to develop behavior support plans. Preventing School Failure, 43(1), 6-13.

Witt, J. C., Daly, E. M., & Noell, G. (2000). Functional assessments: A step-by-step guide to solving academic and behavior problems. Longmont, CO: Sopris West.

Links: [top]

http://www.state.ky.us/agencies/behave/homepage.html
http://www.nichcy.org/
http://pbis.org/,
http://brt.uoregon.edu/ebs

Escaping and Avoiding [top]

Example 1. Staff Relinquish Some Control; Michael Develops Self-Control

Situation: Michael, a 6-year-old first grader, received special education services as "Other Health Impaired" due to Aattention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and an unstable seizure disorder . . . cognitive abilities were . . . in the average range [but] he had difficulty in the areas of expressive and receptive language processing . . . Michael's challenging behaviors included noncompliance, hitting, kicking, biting, pinching, poking, grabbing eyeglasses and jewelry, and screaming. . . . Getting Michael to the resource room's time-out area, 50 feet down the hall from the general education classroom [where he was placed with a one-on-one aide] invariably included a physical struggle. . . . [The aide] often needed help from other adults [and] resigned after the first week. . . . The entire building was often disrupted as Michael was taken down the hall several times a day to the time-out room, the resource room was in shreds, and the emotional climate in the building was tense" (Artesani & Mallar, 1998, p 34).

Competing Pathway Concepts Summarizing Results of a Functional Assessment:

Desired behaviors: Follow directions without being disruptive or aggressive, work on tasks, and participate in class activities.

Typical consequence for desired behaviors: On-going class activities.

Setting events: Possible problems with medication or seizures; transitions within the school building sometimes upsetting; concerns related to being new in town and at this school; unpleasant interactions with untrained aide.

Antecedent: Interrupted when doing something he enjoyed (e.g., puzzles) and told to do a task (e.g., go to reading group or paper-and-pencil task).

Problem behaviors: Noncompliance, aggression, and disruption.

Maintaining consequence for problem behaviors: Avoid or escape task

Alternative behavior: Ask for assistance, a break, or a different activity.

What would you do?

(Take a minute to think of some interventions you might try in a situation like this. Then go on to find out about the actual, successful intervention described here.)

Example 2 . Another Michael Says the Letters Are Too Small and Too Close Together

Situation: This Michael was enrolled in a classroom for students with Emotional Disturbance. He was a seven year old, second grade student and "obtained a composite score of 106 on the Stanford Binet. His referral was due to 'avoidance of academic tasks, especially paper/pencil tasks' and specific problem behaviors including aggression, playing with work materials, negative verbalizations directed at peers and teachers, and property destruction" (Dunlap, White, Vera, Wilson, & Panacek, 1996, p. 484).

Competing Behavior Model Summarizing Results of a Functional Assessment:

Desired behaviors: Work on assigned tasks without being disruptive or aggressive.

Typical Consequences: On-going class activities

Setting event: None identified.

Antecedent: Presented with two English (language arts) worksheets, instructed to read the directions, begin work, and raise hand whenever he needed help.

Problem behaviors: Disruptive, refuses to work, destroys property, inappropriate verbalizations, aggressive.

Maintaining Consequence for Problem Behavior: Avoids work.

Alternative Behavior: Select from a menu of modified assignments; work on one at a time.

What would you do? (Actual, successful intervention described on the next page.)

Successful Intervention: The two worksheets were divided into four shorter ones. The four worksheets were listed on a menu. The size of the print was increased and the spacing between letters was increased, based on Michael's comments when he was interviewed. Michael was shown the menu and given a choice of which worksheet to start on, based on the teacher's comment when she was interviewed that he liked to be in control. When Michael finished the first worksheet, he was to raise his hand and then would be given a choice of which one to work on next, and so on, until all the work was done. However, the amount of time the teacher spent interacting with Michael increased only slightly during the intervention over baseline (from 50% of interval to 52%), so the intervention was basically to modify the assignment.

Measures: Amount of time on-task, percent of intervals with problem behavior, number of word items completed, and number of items correct.

Outcome: Disruptive behavior dropped from an average of 20% to 2% of intervals. On-task time rose from an average of 10% to 96% of intervals. "Task accuracy during the initial assignment conditions was 83% (5 correct out of 6 completed [but only 6 attempted out of 101 assigned words] ), whereas it was 100% (100 correct out of 100 items [all completed] ) during the modified condition sessions" (Dunlap et al., 1996, p. 495).

More information about this example:

Dunlap, G., White, R., Vera, A., Wilson, D., & Panacek, L. (1996). The effects of multi-component, assessment-based curricular modifications on the classroom behavior of children with emotional and behavioral disorders. Journal of Behavioral Education, 6, 481-500.

Example 3. Gizelle Reads on a First Grade Level; Instructions on Fourth Grade Level

Situation: Gizelle was enrolled in a classroom for students with Emotional Disturbance. She was a nine year old, fourth grade student and "obtained a full score of 80 on the WIS-C. Her teacher reported that she displayed low levels of task engagement and high rates of problem behaviors including aggression, property destruction, negative verbalizations to peers and teachers and leaving her assigned area" (Dunlap et al., 1996, p. 484).

Competing Behavior Model Summarizing Results of a Functional Assessment:

Desired behaviors: Work on assigned tasks without being disruptive or aggressive.

Typical consequences: On-going class activities.

Setting event: None identified.

Antecedent: Presented with an English (language arts) worksheet, instructed to read the directions, begin work, and raise hand whenever she needed help or was finished.

Problem behaviors: Disruptive, off task, destroys property, inappropriate verbalizations, aggressive.

Maintaining Consequence for Problem Behavior: Avoids work.

Alternative Behavior: Select and work on a modified assignment.

What would you do? (Actual, successful intervention described on the next page.)

Successful Intervention: The worksheets were modified by adding visual cues to compensate for Gazelle's reading deficits (e.g., more illustrations and examples of how to complete the task were provided, some words were highlighted and others were underlined. Task length was shortened. A choice of several different worksheets was offered. (The amount of time the teacher interacted with Gizelle decreased from 45% to 42% of intervals.)

Measures: Amount of time on-task, percent of intervals with problem behavior, number of word items completed, and number of items correct.

Outcome: Disruptive behavior dropped from an average of 15% to 0% of intervals. On-task time rose from an average of 16% to 99% of intervals. "Task accuracy during the initial assignment conditions was 31% (42 correct out of 90 completed), whereas it was 100% during the modified condition sessions" (Dunlap et al., 1996, p. 495).

More information about this example:

Example 4. Ann Likes "Hands On" Lessons

Situation: Ann was enrolled in a classroom for students with Emotional Disturbance. She was a seven year old, first grade student and her composite score on the Stanford Binet was 83. Her teacher referred Ann for a variety of problem behaviors, including being aggressive when prompted to work, playing with and destroying work materials, especially paper and pencil tasks. However, she was attentive and appropriate during discussions and experiential learning. She lived with her grandmother, who reported that Ann helped with chores at home, including grocery shopping.

Competing Behavior Model Summarizing Results of a Functional Assessment:

Desired behaviors: Trace words on four worksheets about food groups without being disruptive or aggressive.

Typical consequences of desired behaviors: Given next assignment, which was to cut out pictures of food from a magazine and paste on sheets, matching picture to word.

Setting event: None identified.

Antecedent: Presented with worksheets about food groups and instructed to trace the food names.

Problem behaviors: Disruptive, off task, destroys property.

Maintaining Consequence for Problem Behavior: Avoids work.

Alternative Behavior: Select and work on a modified assignment.

What would you do? (Actual, successful intervention described on the next page.)

Successful Intervention: The assignment was modified by allowing Ann to choose the food names to be traced and to use completed worksheets as "grocery lists during a mock grocery shopping trip. A simulated supermarket was constructed and placed within her view. This cardboard structure (1 m x 1 m) was divided into four shelves, and each shelf held food containers representing the different food groups. All of the food containers contained corresponding pictures. During the shopping trip, Ann selected items based on the food names she had traced, placed them in a basket and carried them back to her seat where she removed the pictures from the containers and pasted them under the correct food group label marked on a paper plate" (Dunlap et al., 1996, p. 490). (The amount of time the teacher interacted with Ann increased from 82% to 92% of intervals.)

Measures: Amount of time on-task, percent of intervals with problem behavior, number of pages of worksheets completed.

Outcome: Disruptive behavior dropped from an average of 67% to 3% of intervals. On-task time rose from an average of 20% to 99% of intervals. Number of pages completed increased from an average on half a page initially to four pages during intervention.

More information about this example:

Example 5. Joey Hates Writing

Situation: "Joey was a 13-year-old Caucasian boy who obtained a full-scale IQ score of 98 on the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children . . . [He] attended the seventh grade and was referred by his teacher for concerns with excessive off-task behavior. Throughout the investigation, Joey took 20 mg. of methylphenidate twice daily. . . . Off-task behavior [included] . . . calling out, gesturing, talking to peers, playing with objects, making funny faces . . . not attending to the task. . . . Joey's off-task behavior frequently (once or twice per week) led to office referrals." (Ervin, DuPaul, Kern, & Friman, 1998, pp. 68-70)

Competing Behavior Model Summarizing Results of a Functional Assessment:

Desired behavior: Active engagement in journal and story writing activities.

Typical consequence for desired behavior: Participate in classroom activities (not sent to office).

Setting event: None identified.

Antecedent: Directions and teacher prompts to begin writing.

Problem behavior: Off-task.

Maintaining consequence for problem behavior: Escape difficult writing task.

Possible Alternative Behaviors: Talking into a tape recorder; preparing assignment using a computer; asking appropriately for a brief break from the paper and pencil task; taking extra time to think before having to start writing (Joey's idea).

What would you do? (Actual, successful intervention described on the next page.)

Successful Intervention: Task Made Less Aversive

The writing teacher "opted to provide Joey with a computer as an alternative writing method during long writing tasks, because this intervention could be implemented with several other classmates so Joey would not be singled out" (Ervin et al., 1998, p. 70). For short writing tasks (e.g., 5 to 7 minutes of journal writing), Joey was to take time to think before starting by brainstorming with a peer. Joey's teacher monitored this activity and set an egg timer to limit it to 2 minutes.

Measures: Percent of intervals on task

Outcome: Percent of intervals on task improved from an average of 67.7% during baseline (with a downward trend) to 96% (stable). Joey and his teacher both rated the interventions as satisfactory.

More information about this example:

Ervin, R. A., DuPaul, G. J., Kern, L., & Friman, P.C. (1998). Classroom-based functional and adjunctive assessments: Proactive approaches to intervention selection for adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 31, 65-78.

Example 6. Eddie and Curricular Interventions

Situation: Eddie was an 11-year-old boy in fifth grade who obtained a full-scale IQ score of 118 on the WISC-R. He attended a public elementary school special education program serving students with emotional disturbance. "He was functioning at or above grade level in all academic subjects, as demonstrated by his performance on standardized tests . . . interactions with peers and adults were considered to be generally appropriate. . . . Despite these strengths, Eddie's behavior in the classroom was frequently off task; consequently, he rarely completed assigned work. When Eddie was asked to hand in his work at the end of an academic session or when he was reprimanded for failing to complete an assignment, he engaged in tantrums consisting of episodes of crying and, occasionally, self-injury in the form of head banging or arm biting" (Kern, Childs, Dunlap, Falk, 1994, p. 9).

Competing Pathway Concepts Summarizing Results of a Functional Assessment:

Desired behaviors: Be engaged with, and complete, academic tasks.

Typical consequences for desired behavior: On-going class activities.

Setting event: None identified.

Antecedent: Academic expectations.

Problem behavior: Off task, tantrums (crying, head banging, etc.)

Maintaining consequence for problem behavior: Escape academic tasks that he found aversive, especially tasks involving a lot of handwriting and, in math, drill and practice.

Alternative behaviors: In Spelling and English, learn to complete assignments using a tape recorder or computer instead of pencil or pen. In Math, work on problem solving instead of drill and practice.

What would you do? (Actual, successful intervention described on the next page.)

Successful Intervention: Curricular Modifications

Three teachers were involved in making changes to provide positive behavioral support and several changes were made: (a) Self-monitoring as a means of reminding Eddie to stay on task: "Eddie was given a tape recorder that sounded a bell every minute [faded to every 5 minutes after about a month]. Following the sound of the bell, he was instructed to respond to the statement, 'I am on task' by indicating 'yes' or 'no' on a self-recording sheet placed on the corner of his desk. Simultaneously, one of the data collectors also marked whether Eddie was on task. At the end of the academic session, the data collector compared his or her mark with Eddie's and provided Eddie with feedback on the accuracy of his responses. [Note: This is a form of adult attention and can function as a reinforcing, positive consequence -- in this study, its effect is inseparable from the self-monitoring activity so we do not know if self-monitoring without this attention would be effective.] Self-monitoring sessions were alternated with sessions in which self-monitoring was not available" (Kern et al., 1994, p. 12); (b) the length of tasks was shortened so that instead of one long task, several brief tasks were presented during academic classes, (c) in math class, more problem-solving tasks were given, with the expectation that these would be more interesting and therefore less aversive than drill and practice type tasks, the number of drill and practice assignments was reduced; (d) in English and spelling classes, alternatives to handwriting were made available for some of the work.

Measures: In math, spelling, and English, percent of intervals on task; in spelling, percent of spelling assignments completed

Outcome: Change in average percent of intervals on task from baseline to intervention: Spelling and English: 62% to 93%, Math: 62% to 89%. Change in percent of spelling assignments completed: baseline, 14%; intervention, 62%. [Note: Effect on tantrums was not reported but since tantrums were related to incomplete tasks and off task behavior, a decrease in the number of tantrums is implied.]

More information about this example:

Kern, L., Childs, K. E., Dunlap, G., Clarke, S., & Falk, G. D. (1994). Using assessment-based curricular intervention to improve the classroom behavior of a student with emotional and behavioral challenges. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 7-19.

Example 7. Bill and Matt Escaped Difficult Math Tasks

Situation: "Bill was a 9-year-old boy in third grade who was diagnosed as having behavioral problems and learning difficulties. He spent most of his time (more than 25 hours per week) in the special education classroom [for students with emotional disturbance] with some time in general education settings. Math skills assessment indicated that Bill could complete addition and subtraction tasks without renaming but had deficiencies in performing addition and subtraction tasks with renaming. . . .
Matt was a 9-year-old boy in third grade who was diagnosed as having EBD [emotional and behavioral disorders] and attention-deficit/hyperactive disorder (ADHD). He received math and reading instruction in a resource room with other students with learning disabilities and participated in nonacademic activities in another special education classroom with students with EBD. Math skills assessment showed that Matt had severe deficiencies in performing multiplication and subtraction tasks with renaming. Matt was taking 15 mg. of methylphenidate per day during the time of the study" (Lee, Sugai, & Horner, 1999, p. 196).

Both boys were often off task during when given difficult tasks: "pausing, looking around, and engaging in irrelevant activities (e.g., drawing pictures)" (p. 197). Bill also had problem behaviors, including "aggression (e.g., kicking a desk, tearing paper, throwing objects) and disruptive behaviors (e.g., talking out, being out of chair, making noise, playing with objects, making faces)" (p. 197).

Competing Pathway Concepts Summarizing Results of Functional Analysis:

Desired behaviors: Be on-task and engaged doing math.

Typical consequences for desired behavior: On-going class activities.

Setting event: None identified.

Antecedent: Difficult tasks, making errors.

Problem behaviors: Disruptive, off task, aggressive

Maintaining consequence for problem behavior: Escape difficult task and avoid making errors.

Alternative behaviors: Learn the component skills needed to solve the math problems correctly.

What would you do? (Actual, successful intervention described on the next page.)

Successful Intervention: Antecedent Change B Missing Component Instruction

"Task and error analyses were conducted to identify which component skills of the targeted difficult tasks each participant was missing. Each participant received individualized component skill instruction from the first author until he performed 85% of given difficult tasks correctly. . . [In addition,] Bill received 20 minutes of training to discriminate addition from subtraction tasks (circle the operation)" (Lee et al., 1999, p. 198)

"If problem behaviors are related to escape from difficult tasks, then instructional strategies that are designed to reduce the aversive features of the difficult task represent viable proactive intervention choices" (Lee, Sugai, & Horner, 1999, p. 203).

Measures:

1. Percent of intervals off task

2. Percent of intervals with aggressive or disruptive behaviors

Outcome: Before learning the missing component skills for the difficult tasks, Bill was off task, on average, during 43% of intervals when difficult tasks were presented and was aggressive or disruptive during 15% of intervals. Matt was off task during about 30% of intervals if tasks were difficult. Following component skills instruction, off task behavior while working on the tasks that had been identified as difficult dropped to about 8% of intervals for both boys and Bill's aggressive or disruptive behaviors occurred, on the average, in only 0.6% of intervals. "Results were replicated for both participants when instruction was provided on the second set of difficult tasks" (Lee et al., 1999, p. 198). In addition, both students improved their math scores.

More information about this example:

Lee, Y., Sugai, G., & Horner, R. H. (1999). Using an instructional intervention to reduce problem and off-task behaviors. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 1(4), 195-204.

Example 8. Abe, Cal, and Lee Get Some Help

Situation: Abe and Cal were in the first grade and Lee was in the third grade. All attended a "school for children with learning disabilities and emotional handicaps [and] had been referred by their principal because of behavior problems. . . . Off-task behavior was defined as crying, singing, getting out of seat, playing with other materials in the room, and so forth" (Meyer, 1999, pp. 229-231).

Competing Pathway Concepts Summarizing Results of a Functional Assessment:

Desired behaviors: Stay on-task.

Typical consequences for desired behavior: On-going class activities.

Setting event: None identified.

Antecedent: Difficult task presented.

Problem behavior: Off-task behaviors (e.g., crying, singing, getting out of seat, playing with other materials)

Maintaining consequence for problem behavior: Avoid difficult task.

Alternative behaviors: Ask for help.

What would you do? (Actual, successful intervention described on the next page.)

Successful Intervention (and one that was not):

To test the hypothesis that off task behaviors were maintained by escape from difficult tasks, the students were first taught an alternative behavior that was hypothesized to be useless in this situation (although it might be useful in other situations). They were taught that they could ask the teacher, "Am I doing good work?" If they asked this, they received adult attention. As expected, this was not effective. Then they were taught to request help, saying, AI need some help." If they asked for help, they were given assistance with the difficult task. This was effective and the students asked for help about twice per session.

Measures: Percent of intervals off-task.

Outcome: The improvement was most dramatic for Abe but all three boys reduced their off task time when they were able to ask for help and get assistance, in comparison with the amount of time off task during both baseline and the attention condition.

More information about this example:

Meyer, K. A. (1999). Functional analysis and treatment of problem behavior exhibited by elementary school children. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 32, 229-232.

Adult Attention [top]

Example 9. Karen and Stealing

Situation: Karen was a 10-year old female who was diagnosed as having attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) . . . At the age of 4.5 years, she was placed in the care of a foster family . . . [due to] neglect and physical maltreatment at the hands of her biological parents. . . . She experienced multiple foster family placements. . . . Eventually, she was adopted by her present parents when she was 8 years old. Karen was their only child. . . . Her interactions with peers were poor because she did not respond cooperatively and was disruptive in group contexts. Karen's academic abilities were at a second-grade level.

Stealing behavior was identified by school personnel several months after Karen's enrollment in a public elementary school [placed in a self-contained special education classroom for students with emotional disturbance]. Typically, stolen items included food (e.g., candy, cookies) or personal possessions (e.g., pencil, pad of paper) that were taken from students and adult. (Luiselli & Pine, 1999, pp. 232-233)

Competing Pathway Concepts Summarizing Results of a Functional Assessment:

Desired behaviors: Respect other's property rights / no stealing.

Typical consequences for desired behavior: Typical school day activities.

Setting event: None identified.

Antecedent: None identified.

Problem behavior: Stealing, defined as directly observed or reported to have taken something without permission or "finding another's possession on her person or in her desk" (p. 237)

Maintaining consequence for problem behavior: Each stealing incident was followed by social attention (intended to make the child understand that stealing is wrong), including considerable discussion of the problem behavior at school and at home, an in-school suspension procedure which involved a conference with the principal, and a verbal apology to the victim.

Alternative behaviors: None identified.

What would you do? (Actual, successful intervention described on the next page.)

Successful Intervention: Eliminate Maintaining Consequences for Problem Behavior

To the greatest extent possible, social attention following a stealing incident was eliminated. Although Karen was still required to return or replace stolen items and her parents were notified, all adults agreed not to discuss the incident with Karen and to keep any necessary comments about it to an absolute minimum. She was not required to apologize, and was not sent to the principal's office or given an in-school suspension. Instead, the classroom activities went on. If Karen attempted to discuss her stealing with school staff, they redirected her attention to the classroom activity.

Measure: Number of incidents of stealing per week.

Outcome: Stealing decreased from an average of 1.2 incidents per week during baseline (7 weeks, rising trend) to averages of 0.26 incidents per week for the remaining 15 weeks of the school year and 0.10 incidents per week over the entire next school year.

More information about this example:

Luiselli, J. K., & Pine, J. (1999). Social control of childhood stealing in a public school: A case study. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 30, 231-239.

Example 10. Eve Needs Attention

Situation: Eve was in third grade and attended a "school for children with learning disabilities and emotional handicaps [and] had been referred . . . because of behavior problems. . . . Eve was taking methylphenidate and guanfacine. . . . Off-task behavior was defined as crying, singing, getting out of seat, playing with other materials in the room, and so forth" (Meyer, 1999, pp. 229-231).

Competing Pathway Concepts Summarizing Results of a Functional Assessment:

Desired behaviors: Stay on-task

Typical consequences for desired behavior: On-going class activities.

Setting event: None identified.

Antecedent: Teacher not paying attention to Eve when she is working on a task.

Problem behavior: Off task (e.g., crying, singing, getting out of seat, playing with other materials)

Maintaining consequence for problem behavior: Obtain adult attention.

Alternative behaviors: Request attention in an acceptable way.

What would you do? (Actual, successful intervention described on the next page.)

Successful Intervention (after trying one that was not):

To test the hypothesis that off task behaviors were maintained by adult attention, Eve was first taught an alternative behavior that was hypothesized to be useless in this situation (although it might be useful in other situations). She was taught that she could say, AI need some help." If she said this, the teacher would provide assistance with the task. As expected, this was not effective. Then, she was taught to ask for attention in a way that would be acceptable, for example, by asking, "Am I doing good work?" When she asked for attention this way, the teacher paid attention to her. This was effective in decreasing Eve's off task behavior. She used this type of appropriate attention-seeking question at least once per session but not more than three times in a class period.

Measures: Percent of intervals off-task.

Outcome: Eve reduced her off task time when able to obtain attention in an appropriate way, in comparison with the amount of time off task during baseline and also in comparison with the times when she could ask for assistance.

More information about this example:

Meyer, K. A. (1999). Functional analysis and treatment of problem behavior exhibited by elementary school children. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 32, 229-232.

Example 11. Gary and Sean Are Strongly Influenced by Teacher Attention, Negative or Positive

Situation: Gary and Sean both attended rural schools. Gary was in a regular education 3^rd grade classroom. He was 9 years old. His teacher asked the school's Teacher Support Team for assistance because Gary often was off task and disrupted the class by being out-of-seat and talking out inappropriately. Sean was 8 years old and in a 1^st grade class. He also was often off task and disruptive. His disruptive behaviors included "Howling, whistling, making clicking noises with the mouth, and talking out during academic instruction" (Moore, Doggett, Edwards, & Olmi, 1999, p. 4) Both boys had been diagnosed as ADHD but neither received any medication during this study.

Competing Pathway Concepts Summarizing Results of a Functional Assessment:

Desired behaviors: Stay on-task and work quietly.

Typical consequences for desired behavior: On-going class activities

Setting event: None identified.

Antecedent: For Gary, problem behaviors were worse when the teacher was in close proximity to him. For Sean, problem behaviors seemed to occur in all types of situations involving academics, regardless of the level of difficulty or her proximity.

Problem behaviors: Disruptive and off task.

Maintaining consequence for problem behavior: Obtain adult attention in the form of frequent "redirections, interruptions, and reprimands" (Moore et al., 1999, p. 5).

Alternative behaviors: The alternative behavior is the same as the desired behavior because the teachers changed the way they responded.

What would you do? (Actual, successful intervention described on the next page.)

Successful Interventions:

For Gary: The intervention had several components. First, the teacher stopped responding to Gary's off task behavior with frequent reprimands and redirections. In other words, she put his off task behavior on extinction. Second, she started paying more attention to Gary when his behavior was appropriate. For example, if he raised his hand, she went to him immediately or gave him an indication (verbal or nonverbal) that she saw his hand and would be there as soon as possible. Third, when it seemed that Gary really needed a prompt to stay in his seat or to start working, the teacher provided the prompt indirectly by praising another student who was behavior appropriately. She would then wait 20 seconds, which was usually enough time for Gary to take the hint. If Gary did, then she would immediately praise Gary. If he did not take the hint, then the teacher would directly prompt him but very briefly and would provide praise right away if he complied.

For Sean: The intervention was very similar to Gary's in that the teacher started paying less attention to problem behaviors and more attention to appropriate behaviors. In addition, before directly prompting Sean, she would provide an indirect prompt by praising another child who was behaving appropriately and then, if Sean took the hint, also praising his appropriate behavior. When it was necessary to directly prompt Sean, the prompt was brief and praise was provided immediately for compliance. However, she had an assistant teacher who was not trained in implementing the intervention, but who usually did not work with Sean.

Measures: Percent of intervals with problem behaviors.

Outcome: Gary's problem behaviors ranged from about 35% to 45% of intervals during baseline. With the intervention, problem behaviors never occurred more often than 10% of intervals and often were at zero percent.

Sean's problem behaviors ranged from about 35% to 75% of intervals during baseline. With the intervention, a steady decline occurred (with one exception) from about 25% of intervals to between zero and 10% of intervals. The exception occurred one day when the head teacher had to be out of the room most of the time and the assistant teacher, who had not been trained in the intervention, provided high levels of negative attention (e.g., reprimands) when Sean was off task or disruptive; his problem behaviors went up to 40% of intervals that day. However, when the intervention was resumed, his problem behaviors dropped again to less than 10% of intervals.

More information about this example:

Moore, J. W., Doggertt, R. A., Edwards, R. P., & Olmi, D. J. (1999). Using functional assessment and teacher-implemented functional analysis outcomes to guide intervention for two students with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Proven Practice, 2(1), 3-9.

Peer Attention [top]

Example 12. David's Only Friend

Situations (Over Time): [August] David's foster parents requested a meeting to discuss including David in a general fourth-grade classroom. . . . David was removed from his parents' care when he was 4 years old due to life-threatening abuse he sustained from both parents. Over the past 4 years, David has lived in six different foster care homes. He has lived with his current foster parents for approximately 2 years. . . . David has attended a self-contained special education classroom for 2 years. [Request granted]

[January] Neither the home positive reinforcement system nor the school positive reinforcement system has increased the target behavior: staying in the fourth-grade classroom all day. In fact, David has spent anywhere from 10 to 15 hours a week in the special education classroom over the past 3 weeks as compared to 1 to 2 hours a week during the month of October. . . . [His] behavior in the general classroom is becoming more aggressive. And yet, David continues to complete class assignments earning Bs and Cs. (Bock, 1999, pp. 55, 56).

Competing Behavior Model Summarizing Results of a Functional Assessment:

Desired behaviors: Stay in general education classroom and act in nonaggressive and socially appropriate ways with 4^th grade students.

Typical consequence for desired behavior: On-going class activities (As yet, has not made any friends in 4^th grade so positive peer attention/companionship is not currently a consequence in the 4^th grade room)

Setting event: None identified

Antecedent: In the 4^th grade classroom in general but especially if expected to work with peers.

Problem behavior: Aggression.

Maintaining consequence for problem behavior: Sent back to self-contained classroom where he can work with his (only) friend.

Alternative Behavior: Accept new support plan where time with his friend will be arranged contingent on the desired behavior.

What would you do? (Actual, successful intervention described on the next page.)

Successful Intervention: New Consequences for the Desired Behavior B Borrowed from the Problem Behavior!

1. David is allowed to invite his friend from the self-contained classroom to come to the fourth grade classroom when they have had earned free time.

2. The 4^th grade teacher and the special education teacher set up some projects in which David and one or two other 4^th graders go to the special education room once a week to work with students there.

Measures: Number of hours per week that David spent in special education class room when sent there as a result of aggression or other problem behaviors in the 4^th grade classroom.

Outcome: "This behavior change program was effective. David was fully included in the fourth-grade classroom for the remainder of the school year" (p. 57).

More information about this example:

Bock, M. A. (1999). SOAP strategy: Making reasonable accommodations for students with learning and behavior disorders. Intervention in School and Clinic, 35(1), 53-58.

Example 13. Peers Learn to Ignore Disruptive Behavior and Boys Learn How to Earn Time with a Peer

Situation: Sam, Chris, Frank, and Tony, boys between the ages of 7 and 9 years old, all attended regular classrooms and all acted out in disruptive ways: "excessive activity, inappropriate verbalizations, and physical disruptions (e.g., throwing, tearing-up materials). . . . Frank had previously been diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder by a physician and prescribed 10 mg of Ritalin twice a day. . . . Tony was also diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder by a physician and received 5 mg of Ritalin twice a day. . . . Sam and Chris were not taking any medications. Medication status were held constant throughout the study for Frank and Tony" (Broussard & Northup, 1995, p. 66).

Competing Behavior Model Summarizing Results of a Functional Assessment:

Desired behaviors: Stay on-task and work quietly without disrupting the class.

Typical consequences for desired behaviors: On-going classroom activities.

Setting event: None identified

Antecedent: Given independent seatwork.

Problem behaviors: Out-of-seat, off-task, disrupting others.

Maintaining consequence for problem behavior: Peer attention.

Alternative Behavior: Accept new support plan where peer attention can only be obtained by quiet, on-task behavior.

What would you do? (Actual, successful intervention described on the next page.)

Successful Intervention: Coupons were used to teach extinction of inappropriate peer attention and a way to earn time with a peer. Sam, Chris, Frank, and Tony "earned time with a peer of their choice contingent upon the nonoccurrence of disruptive behavior . . . By providing token coupons . . . [for] 1 min. of time with a peer [after the work session -- 10 min. at first, later 30 min., doing art projects, tic-tac-toe, play with matchbox cars, etc] . . . Delivered on a 1 min. [gradually increased to 10 min.] . . . schedule [if on task and not disruptive]. Coupons were placed on corner of desk with no comment" (p. 70)

"Extinction of peer attention was implemented by specifically instructing the other students not to interact with the participant and by allowing the other students to earn coupons for remaining quiet or lose coupons (response cost) for talking during the session . . . coupons represented a variety of common classroom rewards (e.g., 2 min. of extra recess, a snack of choice). All instructions to other students were given individually and in the absence of the participant" (p. 70)

Measures: Amount of time on task and amount of time without disruptions.

Outcome: For Frank, disruptive behaviors were reduced an initial average of 37% of intervals to 0.8% of intervals at first and then completely eliminated, even when coupons could be earned only after 10 minutes. His average on-task behavior increased from 26% of the time during baseline to between 96 and 100% of the time with the intervention.

For Tony, disruptive behaviors were reduced an initial average of 51% of intervals to 12% of intervals at first, then 1%, and then were completely eliminated, even when coupons could be earned only after 10 minutes. His average on-task behavior increased from 64% of the time during baseline to 100% of the time with the intervention.

For Sam, disruptive behaviors were reduced an initial average of 27% of intervals to 2% of intervals and then were completely eliminated, even when coupons could be earned only after 10 minutes. His average on-task behavior increased from 95% of the time during baseline to between 97 and 100% of the time with the intervention.

For Chris, disruptive behaviors were reduced an initial average of 28% of intervals during baseline to 1% of intervals at first, then 0% when coupons could be earned every 5 minutes but went to 4% of intervals when coupons could be earned only after 10 minutes. His average on-task behavior increased from 76% of the time during baseline to 100% of the time with the intervention.

More information about this example:

Broussard, C. D., & Northup, J. (1997). The use of functional analysis to develop peer interventions for disruptive classroom behavior. School Psychology Quarterly, 12, 65-76.

Example 14. Peer Attention Works for Lance

Situation: Lance was a six year old boy who attended a general education 1^st grade class and received special services only for speech. His teacher reported that Lance had "high rates of inappropriate peer interactions during academic and free-play times . . . including engaging peers in off-task conversations, making noises and humming, calling peers names, and kicking and hitting peers. . . . The teacher used verbal correction statements and sometimes removed Lance from the classroom [but these interventions had not resolved the problem]" (Lewis & Sugai, 1996, pp. 9-10). A decision was made to focus on trying to get Lance on-task during a 15 minute period that was supposed to be devoted to reading.

Competing Behavior Model Summarizing Results of a Functional Assessment:

Desired behaviors: Stay on-task during reading time.

Typical consequences for desired behavior: On-going class activities.

Setting event: None identified.

Antecedent: Directions to select a book and read.

Problem behavior: Off task, aggressive, name-calling.

Maintaining consequence for problem behavior: Peer attention.

Alternative behavior: Find an acceptable way to obtain peer attention yet stay on task during reading.

What would you do? (Actual, successful intervention described on the next page.)

Successful Intervention: Work with a peer tutor. "The peer was instructed to prompt Lance to select his books, find his seat, and the two of them would read together. The peer was also instructed to periodically provide verbal praise when Lance was on-task" (Lewis & Sugai, 1996, pp. 15-16).

Measures: Percent of time on task

Outcome: During baseline, Lance was on-task, on average, during 22% of reading time. When the peer tutoring intervention was first introduced (after trying several other interventions which were not sufficiently powerful, such as having a peer periodically praise Lance if he was on task and giving Lance an opportunity to earn free time later with a peer), his on-task time rose to 69%. It was temporarily discontinued (and on-task time dropped) and when the peer tutoring started again, amount of time on-time again went up.

More information about this example:

Lewis, T. J., & Sugai, G. (1996). Descriptive and experimental analysis of teacher and peer attention and the use of assessment-based intervention to improve the pro-social behavior of a student in a general education setting. Journal of Behavioral Education, 6, 7-24.

Preferred Activities [top]

Example 15. Tyler Is Adding, Not Subtracting

Situation: Tyler attended a self-contained classroom for students characterized as Emotionally Disturbed. He was a 2^nd grader who was able to do basic addition and subtraction facts when presented separately but when presented in combination, made many errors. His teacher has tried, without success, to improve Tyler's accuracy by implementing "numerous interventions, such as using manipulatives, sequential drill and practice worksheets, and computer-assisted programs . . . [She] is frustrated and does not know what intervention to implement next" (Jolivette, Lassman, & Wehby, 1998, p. 19).

Competing Behavior Model Summarizing Results of a Functional Assessment:

Desired behaviors: Accurately solve addition and subtraction facts when presented in combination.

Typical consequences for desired behavior: Positive feedback on accuracy.

Setting event: None identified.

Antecedent: Addition and subtraction facts when presented in combination.

Problem behavior: Makes many arithmetic errors; error analysis and student interview indicate that he just adds most of the problems.

Maintaining consequence for problem behavior: Engaging in preferred activity, adding.

Alternative behavior: Find a way to turn subtraction problems into addition problems and still get the correct answer.

What would you do? (Actual, successful intervention described on the next page.)

Successful Intervention: Counting Up: "Tyler was taught to put the number next to the subtraction sign in his head (e.g., to place his hand on his forehead as a physical prompt), count up to the top number with his fingers, and write the number of fingers he had used in the appropriate column" (Jolivette et al., 1998, p. 21).

Measures: Number of correct math responses.

Outcome: Average number of correct math responses during baseline was 17 out of 24 (71%) but with the intervention of Counting Up, it rose to an average of 23 out of 24 (96%).

More information about this example:

Jolivette, K., Lassman, K. A., & Wehby, J. H. (1998). Functional assessment for academic instruction for a student with emotional and behavioral disorders: A case study. Preventing School Failure, 43(1), 19-23.

Example 16. Kevin Goes to School

Situation: Kevin was a 15 year old male eligible for special education due to behavior disorders but "was primarily in regular education classes at grade level. School personnel did not report any concerns regarding Kevin's cognitive functioning or academic achievement; however, Kevin was not completing academic work. Peer relations were described by the school as poor" (Shriver, 2000, p. 58). Kevin frequently was absent from school all day. His parents took him to a clinical psychologist for help in getting Kevin to attend school. In his short life time, Kevin had already been given many labels, including Obsessive-Compulsiveive Disorder, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, Paranoid Schizophrenia, Tourette Syndrome, and Oppositional Defiant Disorder. He had received treatment from mental health professionals for some of these conditions, and had responded positively to treatment in the past. Recently, however, he received a new label, Conduct Disorder, and had been involved with the juvenile justice system as a result of vandalism. Kevin, his parents, the clinical psychologist, and school personnel were trying to work together to develop function-based support.

Competing Behavior Model Summarizing Results of a Functional Assessment:

Desired behavior: Go to school and stay all day.

Typical consequences for desired behavior: On-going class activities.

Setting event: None identified.

Antecedent: None identified.

Problem behavior: Truancy

Maintaining consequence for problem behavior: Obtains reinforcement at home (i.e., preferred activities -- use computer, phone, television).

Alternative behaviors: Use computer lab at school and attend school to also earn access to preferred activities at home after school instead of during the school day.

What would you do? (Actual, successful intervention described on the next page.)

Successful Intervention: A contract was developed, though negotiation will all involved, under the leadership of the clinical psychologist. All agreed to follow the contract. The components of the support were: (a) the school provided Kevin with an increased amount of time in the school computer lab, and (b) on days when Kevin goes to school and stays all day, in the evening, at home, his parents will provide time with his friends, tokens toward ordering Pay-Per-View wrestling (Kevin had identified this as something he wanted to watch but due to the expense, it was decided that it would take 5 tokens to earn this), and one hour on the home computer.

Measures: Attendance at school.

Outcome: During baseline, Kevin attended school only one day out of 24 possible (0.06% of the time). With the intervention, Kevin went to school and stayed all day on 15 out of 16 possible (94% of the time). However, without consulting the team that designed the support plan, Kevin's parents decided to stop following the contract and instead started a different intervention. The new plan did not involve any negotiating or discussion about developing a new contract, instead, the parents just announcing new requirements -- basically reneging on the contract they had signed. Their new intervention was to require that Kevin not only attend school and stay all day but that he also complete all work assigned at school in order to earn the same reinforcers at home. This was unfortunate in that Kevin immediately refused to go to school at all again, let alone do any school work. In a way, however, it had one advantage in that it constituted a naturally occurring reversal, leading to a scientifically acceptable research design. The parents contacted the psychologist about the new problem and followed his advice to work with Kevin and the school staff to return to the original support plan for at least two weeks before renegotiating a revision with different conditions. The report ended one day after the original play was reinstituted; Kevin went back to school and stayed all day that day. The psychologist recommended that when Kevin's school attendance was stable, the team renegotiate, with discussions in which the concerns of all involved would be heard, any new conditions. [Perhaps a condition for future revisions should have been part of the original plan.]

More information about this example:

Shriver, M. D. (2000). Effective implementation of behavior contracts: A case study of school refusal. Proven Practice, 2(2), 57-61.

More information about function-based support for school attendance problems:

Kearney, C. A., & Tillotson, C. A. (1998). School attendance. In T. S. Watson & F. M. Gresham (Eds.), Handbook of child behavior therapy (pp. 143-161). New York: Plenum.

Multiple Functions [top]

Example 17. Tom Learns an Acceptable Way to Get Peer Attention and More

Situation: Tom is a seventh-grade student identified as having learning disabilities. He has a medical diagnosis of attention-deficit disorder (ADD) and is functioning in the low-average range of intelligence. Tom receives all instruction in general education classes. . . . When directions are given to complete individual written work [in science, where his assigned seat is away from peers], Tom wads (or tears up) his paper . . . says he does not want to do the work and should not have to do it. [Verbal confrontation with teacher follows] . . . He has received several office referrals, after-school detentions, and two out-of-school suspensions [which were not effective in reducing the frequency of the problem behavior]. (McConnell, Hilvitz, & Cox, 1998, p. 16)

Competing Behavior Model Summarizing Results of a Functional Assessment:

Desired behavior: Be engaged with science assignments.

Typical consequences for desired behavior: On-going class activities.

Setting event: None identified.

Antecedent: Given science worksheet.

Problem behaviors: Wads, tears paper; verbally confronts teacher; fails to do work on time.

Maintaining consequences for problem behaviors: 1. Gains peer attention (peers look, giggle). 2. Sometimes able to delay doing a task that is frustrating for him (above his skill level) until after school. 3. Gains adult attention in the form of verbal confrontations and being sent to principal.

Alternative behaviors: Learn to (a) work with and accept help from a peer; (b) ask for more time or help if needed, and (c) self- monitor progress.

What would you do? (Actual, successful intervention described on the next page.)

Successful Interventions:

Antecedent Changes: 1. A peer (with good study skills) was assigned to work with Tom, sitting near him and providing help with directions and tasks as needed. 2. Study guides and graphic organizers were used with some assignments to help Tom find information. 3. Provided Tom with lists of key words and definitions related to worksheets. 4. Made sure directions were understood by presenting in more than one way (e.g., teacher went over the directions verbally, directions were written, peer explained, and/or teacher demonstrated how to do the task and guided Tom on first item).

Teaching: Tom learned to (a) work with a peer, (b) ask for extra time or assistance when needed, and (c) self-monitor. Tom filled out a checklist to monitor his progress every day (e.g., I asked for more time when needed; I answered all questions; I turned in assignment).

Changing Consequences: 1. If Tom asked for extra time or for help, it was provided. 2. The teacher provided reinforcement for "academic productivity and assignment completion" (p. 20). (Type of positive reinforcement was not described but results indicated gradual improvement so apparently some type of positive reinforcement was given for doing some work even when sometimes problem behaviors were still occurring. Consequences for problem behaviors were not described but if they followed the recommendations in the literature, they would have eliminated the giggling and looking by asking peers to stay focused on their own work and avoided providing teacher or principal attention as much as possible.)

Measures: Number of incidents of problem behavior per week.

Outcome: Tom did not achieve the goal of zero problem incidents immediately but rather to reduced problem behavior to three (down from five) occurrences the first week, two the second, and one the third week, at which time the Individual Education Plan (IEP) team decided to write the intervention into Tom's IEP and continue to monitor his progress.

More information about this example:

McConnell, M. E., Hilvitz, P. B., & Cox, C. J. (1998). Functional assessment: A systematic process for assessment and intervention in general and special education classrooms. Intervention in School and Clinic, 34(1), 10-20.

Example 18. Kyle Learns Ways to Obtain Positive Peer Attention and to Self-Recruit Teacher's Praise

Situation: Kyle was a 9 year old 4^th grader who attended a general education blended 3^rd and 4^th grade class. He was eligible for special education services due to learning disabilities and his IEP called for 150 minutes per week of specially designed instruction in reading and math and 60 minutes of specially designed instruction in language arts. Kyle also had Legg-Calve-Perthes disease and used an abductor brace to strengthen his hip. His teacher requested that Kyle be tested for ADHD and doubted that any intervention except medicine would have any effect of Kyle's behavior (but he was not receiving any medication at any time during this study). In addition, the teacher put in a request for assistance from the school's Teacher Assistance Team. Kyle did not complete his work, had poor attendance, and was disruptive by teasing and taunting peers and making Asexually inappropriate comments" (Todd, Horner, & Sugai, 1999, p. 67). Kyle also "stole pencils from his desk partners, blew their papers off their desks, kicked peers under the table, made funny faces to distract the other children, and did not volunteer to participate in class discussions or ask for clarification" (Todd et al., 1999, p. 70).

Competing Behavior Model Summarizing Results of a Functional Assessment:

Desired behaviors: Be on task and nondisruptive.

Typical consequences for desired behavior: On-going class activities.

Setting event: None identified.

Antecedent: Large group (i.e., more than 5 students in the group) or "unsupervised work times" (Todd et al., 1999, p. 69).

Problem behavior: Off task and disruptive teasing and taunting peers and making Asexually inappropriate comments" (Todd, Horner, & Sugai, 1999, p. 67).

Maintaining consequence for problem behavior: Obtain adult and peer attention.

Alternative behaviors: Learn appropriate ways to obtain peer and teacher attention.

What would you do? (Actual, successful intervention described on the next page.)

Successful Intervention: Kyle's function-based support included the following elements: (a) a way to self-recruit teacher attention, (b) a way to help the whole class earn positive reinforcement, (c) prompting to stay on task provided on a regular basis, and (d) a self-management strategy that he helped design. Kyle learned the self-management system in two 15 minute, one-on-one instructional sessions which included positive and negative examples, role playing and practice. He learned to listened to a prerecorded cassette tape that reminded him, every 3 to 5 minutes during a 50 minute class, to mark a card with a plus when he was on-task and his behavior was appropriate and a zero if off task or disruptive. To obtain teacher attention, Kyle asked the teacher for feedback when he had marked three plus marks. If this occurred during instruction, he would raise his hand. If it was during group time, he could walk up to the teacher with the card. The teacher would then provide praise and mark the card to show where to start counting for the next three plus marks. To obtain peer attention, at the end of each class period, if Kyle had no more than two zeros on his card, he earned a sticker. These stickers provided opportunities for peer attention because all the students combined their stickers (other students had other ways to earn stickers) to earn rewards for the entire class.

Measures: Percent of intervals with problem behaviors and on-task behavior, teacher ratings of Kyle's behavior in his first and second class, and work completed during his first class.

Outcome: Before the function-based support, Kyle engaged in problem behaviors during an average of about 57% of intervals in his first class and 63% during the second class. When the intervention was first implemented, problem behaviors decreased to less than 2% of intervals in the first class and less than 7% of intervals in the second class. To demonstrate that the change was related to the intervention, it was briefly discontinued and problem behaviors immediately went back up. The intervention was then started again and continued with the results that problem behaviors decreased again to an average of less than 4% of intervals in both classes.

His on task behavior, which had been averaging less than 23% of intervals in both targeted classes, increased to the extent that is was even greater than his peers. His peers' on-task behavior generally averaged around 72% of intervals but with the function-based support, Kyle's on-task behavior was over 90% of intervals. "Kyle told his desk partners to be quiet so he could work . . . [he] ignored conversations of others while he read silently, raised his hand to ask for help or clarification, and eagerly volunteered to participate in class discussions or answer questions" (Todd et al., 1999, p. 70).

His teacher rated his behavior on a scale of 1 (poor) to 10 (excellent) after each class period. Before the intervention, ratings were around 2 or 3 in his first class, on average, and around 4 in the second class. With the intervention, his ratings rose to about 8, on average, in both classes. During baseline, Kyle never completed his work. With the intervention, he consistently completed his work.

More information about this example:

Todd, A. W., Horner, R. H., Sugai, G. (1999). Self-Monitoring and self-recruited praise: Effects on problem behavior, academic engagement, and work completion in a typical classroom. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 1(2), 66-76.

Example 19. Corey Keeps His Regular Class Placement.

Situation: Corey was an 8 year old boy who was the only student eligible for special education services in the 3^rd grade general education classes that he attended. Corey's school had a system where three 3^rd grade teachers worked together in that, although each had a homeroom class, each teacher specialized in an academic area and the children rotated for language arts, social studies, and math. Each teacher also had an assistant. Corey was diagnosed as ADHD and took 5-mg of Ritalin twice a day. Although the teachers reported that the Ritalin reduced Corey's impulsive behaviors, he still engaged in disruptive behaviors to such an extent that they requested an IEP team meeting to consider a different placement. Corey's disruptive behaviors were Atalking to other students seated near him; making facial or hand gestures directed at the other students; getting up and walking around the room; and tapping his pencil, hands, or other objects loudly on his desk. To manage these behaviors, the teachers had developed a program that involved self-monitoring, tokens for appropriate behavior, and redirection for disruptive behavior. All six staff (i.e., three teachers and three aides) reported the program had been ineffective" (Umbreit, 1995, p. 268).

Competing Behavior Model Summarizing Results of a Functional Assessment:

Desired behaviors: Be on-task, nondisruptive, follow directions, and in social interactions, be positive or neutral.

Typical consequences for desired behavior: Tokens for appropriate behavior (back up reinforcer not identified in the report).

Setting event: None identified.

Antecedents: Academic classes with independent seatwork when seated near other children and group work when his friends were included in the group.

Problem behavior: Disruptive.

Maintaining consequences for problem behavior: Obtain peer attention -- "although most of the students did not respond to Corey's disruptive behaviors, a few of them consistently responded by looking at him and imitating what he was doing" (Umbreit, 1995, p. 272); adult attention (e.g., occasional reprimand); also avoids task.

Alternative behaviors: Do group work with students who will provide attention only for appropriate behavior, learn to request a break.

What would you do? (Actual, successful intervention described on the next page.)

Successful Intervention: Corey's function-based support had four elements: (a) independent seatwork was done in a specific places in the classrooms that were not near the other students, (b) group work was not done with his friends, who provided attention for inappropriate behavior, but was done instead with other students who naturally tended to ignore inappropriate behaviors and respond to appropriate behaviors, (c) Corey was taught to request a break whenever he wanted to and all requests were honored with a brief (one or two minute) break, and (d) staff ignored disruptive behavior.

Measures: Percent of intervals of disruptive and appropriate behavior. Number of times breaks were requested also was monitored.

Outcome: Before the intervention, Corey was disruptive between 55% and 95% of intervals in academic classes. Appropriate behavior occurred between 5% and 45% of the time. AAs the intervention was implemented in each class, disruptive behavior was virtually eliminated and appropriate behavior occurred almost all of the time" (Umbreit, 1995, p. 275)

At first, Corey requested several breaks (at most, several times per week) but this gradually declined and after the 20^th day of the intervention, Corey did not ask for breaks at all, even though he was still allowed to do so and his requests were always honored.

Corey was able to remain in the general education classes.

More information about this example:

Umbreit, J. (1995). Functional assessment and intervention in a regular classroom setting for the disruptive behavior of a student with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Behavioral Disorders, 20(4), 267-278.

Combining Function-Based Support with Traditional Positive Reinforcement [top]

Example 20. Little ANo Name@ and the AAttention Ribbon@

Situation: A 6 year old, typically developing first grader, for whom no name is given, displayed "high levels of disruptive and inattentive behaviors during those periods of the day when he did not receive one-on-one attention" (Grandy & Peck, 1997, p. 32).

Competing Behavior Model Summarizing Results of a Functional Assessment:

Desired behaviors:

Story Time: Sit quietly on carpet, listen

Art: Sit or stand quietly, complete project

Seat Work: Sit quietly, complete assignment.

Typical consequences for desired behavior: On-going class activities.

Setting event: None identified.

Antecedent: Low level of adult attention.

Problem behavior: Disruptive (Poking others, kicking his feet, out of seat, talking out)

Maintaining consequence for problem behavior: Obtain adult attention (e.g., reprimand)

Alternative behaviors: Self-monitor own behavior and receive contingent attention both for self-monitoring and for being on-task.

What would you do? (Actual, successful intervention described on the next page.)

Successful Intervention: A practicum student (an adult in training to be a teacher) taught the child to recognize appropriate and inappropriate behavior and to self-monitor his behavior by marking an AX@ on either a happy face or a neutral face, printed on a small card, when he heard a tone on a audio-cassette recorder, at first on a variable 1 minute schedule during story time only. Self-monitoring was extended to the other target activities and the time interval was lengthened. The adult, who also marked a card, provided a sign of approval (e.g., thumbs up) when the child self-monitored correctly; but provided no attention if the child did not. If the student's card matched the adult's, and four happy faces were marked, the adult provided two minutes of continuous attention by sitting by the student, giving a pat on the back, offering to help with tasks, etc. In addition, at the end of the class, the child was allowed to select a prize (e.g., pencil, sticker). When eight happy faces were marked, an AAttention Ribbon@ (red, about 6 cm by 3 cm) was placed on the child's shirt as a signal for the teacher and peers to provide attention (e.g., praise, high fives).

Measures: Percent of intervals with disruptive behavior across three different activities.

Outcome: Under conditions of low adult attention prior to the intervention, disruptive behavior occurred on the average during 59% of intervals in story time, 45% in art, and 47% during seatwork. With the intervention, in a very short time disruptive behavior dropped to 22% of the intervals during story time, 13% during art, and 25% during seat work. The practicum student was not able to continue the intervention but anecdotal reports indicated that even when it was discontinued, the child as more on task than before and for the first time in the school year, completed an art project.

More information about this example:

Grandy, S. E., & Peck, S. M. (1997). The use of functional assessment and self-management with a first grader. Child and Family Behavior Therapy, 19(2), 29-43.

Example 21. Lou Learns Self-Monitoring and Earns Praise and Reinforcers

Situation: Lou was a 4^th grade student identified as having a learning disabled in written language. He attended a resource room part of the day and was in general education classes most of the day. His behavior problems included avoiding written work by drawing on his papers instead of doing his assignments or folding or tearing the paper. In addition, he often lost his assignments. When he did a written assignment, it was often done carelessly.

Competing Behavior Model Summarizing Results of a Functional Assessment:

Desired behaviors: Be on task with written assignments and work more carefully.

Typical consequences for desired behavior: On-going class activities.

Setting event: None identified.

Antecedents: Written assignments.

Problem behaviors: Off-task and careless.

Maintaining consequence for problem behavior: Teacher attention (e.g., prompting).

Alternative behaviors: Use a personalized notebook to organize materials and learn to recruit teacher attention for completed assignments.

What would you do? (Actual, successful intervention described on the next page.)

Successful Interventions: Lou's intervention had several components. First, Lou was taught to use a personalized notebook to organize materials and to self-monitor his productivity by keeping track of his assignments and marking off when they were finished. Second, a system was developed where he could recruit teacher attention and praise for completed assignments by raising his hand for permission to turn in assignments as he completed them. Third, he was able to earn positive reinforcement in the form of activities, such as using the computer or listening to music.

Measures: Percent of work completed.

Outcome: During baseline, Lou completed between 25% and 100% of his work. At first, this continued to be true during the intervention, although there were more 100% days and fewer 25% days. Later, he was doing 100% of his work every day.

More information about this example:

Scott, T. M., DeSimone, C., Fowler, W., & Webb, E. (2000). Using functional assessment to develop interventions for challenging behaviors in the classroom: Three case studies. Preventing School Failure, 44(2), 51-56.

Example 22. Andy Learns an Acceptable Way to Avoid Difficult Tasks and More

Situation: Andy was a 6^th grade student identified as learning disabled in several areas and also eligible for speech services. He attended a resource room for most academic subjects and took elective classes in general education. He was referred for a behavioral intervention due to noncompliance and off task behaviors.

Competing Behavior Model Summarizing Results of a Functional Assessment:

Desired behaviors: Be on task and follow directions.

Typical consequences for desired behavior: On-going class activities.

Setting event: None identified.

Antecedents: 1. Teacher is addressing the class. 2. Independent seatwork assigned.

Problem behaviors: Off-task and noncompliant.

Maintaining consequence for problem behavior: AEscape from activities in which he did not wish to participate@ (Scott, DeSimmone, Fowler, & Webb, 2000, p. 53).

Alternative behaviors: Stay on task to earn positive reinforcement and learn to appropriately request assistance.

What would you do? (Actual, successful intervention described on the next page

Successful Interventions: Andy's intervention had several components. First, the teacher taught him how to ask for assistance. To do this, she modeled examples of the appropriate and inappropriate ways and provided information about what was acceptable and what was not. Then, he was prompted to use the appropriate ways of asking for help when he was off task. Next a contract was developed with Andy's help so that he would be more motivated to stay on task because he would be earning positive reinforcement at the end of the day that he helped select. He wanted to work for an edible treat. When the data indicated that a stronger intervention was needed, it was decided that reinforcement would be provided twice a day instead of once a day.

Measures: Percent of time on task.

Outcome: Time on task varied from 52% to 85% of intervals during baseline. When the intervention started, time on task went up at first but then declined. After the intervention was strengthened by providing positive reinforcement twice a day, time on task increased to between 90% and 100% of intervals.

More information about this example:

Example 23. Jake Earns Teacher's Praise and More

Situation: Jake was a 3^rd grade student identified as learning disabled received special education in a resource room for two hours a day and was in general education classes the rest of the school day. He needed behavioral support to refrain from off task and disruptive behaviors, specifically, Astomping feet, tapping hands on desk, making popping noises in mouth, and talking without permission@ (Scott et al., 2000, p. 54).

Competing Behavior Model Summarizing Results of a Functional Assessment:

Desired behaviors: Stay on task and make only appropriate noises or work quietly.

Typical consequences for desired behavior: On-going class activities.

Setting event: None identified.

Antecedents: Teacher is involved with other students.

Problem behaviors: Off-task and making inappropriate noises.

Maintaining consequence for problem behavior: AAccess attention from the students or classroom teacher@ (Scott et al., 2000, p. 54).

Alternative behaviors: The desired behavior can be the alternative behavior if the teacher shifts her attention from the problem to the appropriate behaviors.

What would you do? (Actual, successful intervention described on the next page.)

Successful Interventions: Jake's intervention had several components. First, the teacher ignored minor inappropriate behaviors and increased praise for appropriate behavior. Second, so that he would be more motivated to stay on task, Jake was allowed to Abrainstorm a list of items for which he would be interested in working@ (Scott et al, 2000, p. 54) within a limited price range.

Measures: Percent of time engaged in only appropriate noise making.

Outcome: Jake made inappropriate noises about 50% of the time during baseline. When the intervention started, at first he got worse! But that was only for two days. Fortunately, the teacher did not give up easily and from the third day to the 6^th day of the intervention, Jake was appropriate about 75% of the time. The study ended at that time but with the recommendation that the intervention be continued and improved by adding a self-monitoring component. [Note that the FBA indicated student attention was part of the maintaining consequence for the problem behavior so the intervention might also be improved by addressing that in some way (see section on interventions for peer attention)].

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Example 24. Don needed a multi-component support plan.

Situation: Don was a 9 year old 4^th grader who received special education services in a resource room two hours a day due to learning disabilities in reading, math, and written language. The remainder of the school day he was in the 4^th grade classroom. His problem behaviors included being off task and disruptive (e.g., throwing materials, swearing, slamming his book shut).

Competing Behavior Model Summarizing Results of a Functional Assessment:

Desired behaviors: Be on task and nondisruptive.

Typical consequences for desired behavior: On-going class activities.

Setting event: None identified.

Antecedent: Nonpreferred academic demands, particularly math and written language assignments, although these were at an appropriate level.

Problem behavior: Off task and disruptive (e.g., throwing materials, swearing, slamming his book shut).

Maintaining consequence for problem behavior: Avoid task.

Alternative behaviors: Ask for a break and work on nonpreferred tasks to earn opportunities to engage in preferred tasks.

What would you do? (Actual, successful intervention described on the next page.)

Successful Intervention: A multi-component support package that had three parts was effective for Don. First, he learned to ask for brief breaks (1 or 2 minutes) from nonpreferred tasks, which were honored if his behavior was appropriate. Second, the educational assistant, who previously had inadvertently prolonged Don's time off task by reprimands and Aarguments@ (Steege & Northup, 1998, p. 8), changed and put escape behavior on extinction by avoiding lengthy discussions and instead providing only brief redirection. Third, positive reinforcement, in the form of earning opportunities to draw pictures of race cars (a preferred activity for Don) could be earned by being on task and nondisruptive with nonpreferred academic tasks.

Measures: Percent of time with appropriate behavior and percent with disruptive behavior.

Outcome: Disruptive behavior decreased from a pre-intervention range of 0% to 65% of intervals (average of 23%) to a range of 0% to 5% with the intervention. Appropriate behavior ranged from 20% to 100% (average, 61%) pre-intervention and increased to a range of 90% to 100% with the intervention.

More information about this example:
Steege, M. W., & Northup, J. (1998). Functional analysis of problem behavior: A practical approach for school psychologists. Proven Practice, 1(1), 4-11.

References [top]

Artesani, A. J., & Mallar, L. (1998). Positive behavior support in general education settings: Combining person-centered planning and functional analysis. Intervention in School and Clinic, 34(1), 33-38.

Bock, M. A. (1999). SOAP strategy: Making reasonable accommodations for students with learning and behavior disorders. Intervention in School and Clinic, 35(1), 53-58.

Broussard, C. D., & Northup, J. (1997). The use of functional analysis to develop peer interventions for disruptive classroom behavior. School Psychology Quarterly, 12, 65-76.

Grandy, S. E., & Peck, S. M. (1997). The use of functional assessment and self-management with a first grader. Child and Family Behavior Therapy, 19(2), 29-43.

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) Amendments of 1997, P.L. 105-17, 105th Congress, 1st Session.

Kearney, C. A., & Tillotson, C. A. (1998). School attendance. In T. S. Watson & F. M. Gresham (Eds.), Handbook of child behavior therapy (pp. 143-161). New York: Plenum.

Lee, Y., Sugai, G., & Horner, R. H. (1999). Using an instructional intervention to reduce problem and off-task behaviors. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 1(4), 195-204.

Luiselli, J. K., & Pine, J. (1999). Social control of childhood stealing in a public school: A case study. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 30, 231-239.

Meyer, K. A. (1999). Functional analysis and treatment of problem behavior exhibited by elementary school children. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 32, 229-232.

Shriver, M. D. (2000). Effective implementation of behavior contracts: A case study of school refusal. Proven Practice, 2(2), 57-61.

Steege, M. W., & Northup, J. (1998). Functional analysis of problem behavior: A practical approach for school psychologists. Proven Practice, 1(1), 4-11.

Tobin, T. J. (In review). Functional assessment and intervention at school.

Witt, J. C., Daly, E. M., & Noell, G. (2000). Functional assessments: A step-by-step guide to solving academic and behavior problems. Longmont, CO: Sopris West.

Answers [top]

Example 1:

Successful Intervention:

Setting Event (Ecological) Strategies: (a) Updated medical evaluation; (b) During transitions, Michael was given a peer partner who could model being calm and explain what was going on and what was expected; (c) The new aide was given more training; (d) A friendship group was developed to support Michael.

Antecedent Strategies: (a) Michael was given more opportunities to choose which activities he would do first (e.g., allowed to continue working on puzzle if asks appropriately); (b) Easy and preferred tasks were interspersed with difficult, less preferred tasks; (c) Activities were made more appealing (e.g., reduce length, assistance offered).

Teaching Strategies: Staff had to encourage Michael to ask for assistance, a change in activities, or a break rather than acting aggressively or being disruptive.

Consequence Strategies: (a) Staff listened to and honored Michael's new alternative requests (i.e., he was given assistance, or a break, or allowed to choose a different activity if he made the requests appropriately); (b) Staff remained "emotionally supportive or at least neutral when confronted with problem behaviors" (p. 36). When a staff member felt upset while working with Michael, it was agreed that he or she could ask another staff member to take his or her place.

Measures: (a) Number of incidents of aggression, noncompliance, and disruption per week, (b) percent of class activities in which Michael participated, (c) general indicators of quality of educational experience (e.g., type of activities, need for one-to-one assistance).

Outcome: (a) Average number of incidents of aggression, noncompliance, and disruption per week dropped from 18 to 1. (b) Participation increased from 38% of class activities in the autumn to 60% by mid-year and 94% by spring. (c) Learned to write his name and most letters and numbers appropriate for 1^st grade work; and, according to the aide, "although I continue to be assigned to Michael, I now spend much of my time assisting other children. He no longer requires my constant attention" and, according to the general education teacher, "Michael is no longer considered a behavioral concern" (p. 37).

More information about this example:

Table of Contents

Advance Organizer Links Escaping and Avoiding Adult Attention Peer Attention Preferred Activities Multiple Functions Combining References Answers

Advance Organizer
Links
Escaping and Avoiding
Adult Attention
Peer Attention
Preferred Activities
Multiple Functions
Combining
References
Answers