I. Ancient Iberia

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The Iberian Peninsula’s strategic location, providing access to Europe, Africa, and the Mediterranean, has attracted foreigners for centuries.  Ranging from the Celts to the Phoenicians  to the Greeks, numerous groups were established in various regions of Iberia before the Romans arrived in 219 BCE.

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After defeating Carthage in the Second Punic War in 202 BC, the Romans began to assert control of the Iberian Peninsula.  In 27 BCE the Roman Emperor Augustus divided the peninsula into three provinces: Hispania Baetica, Hispania Taraconensis, and Lusitania.  The Romans brought Latin, the foundation of the Spanish language.  The three provinces provided the Roman Empire with valuable exports, including olive oil, metal, and wine.

II.  Germanic Invasions

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After more than five centuries of Roman rule, the early fifth century CE saw great migrations of Germanic peoples, including the Alans, Sueves, Vandals, and Visigoths to Iberia.  These invasions marked the end of Roman rule in the Iberian Peninsula and the establishment of barbarian kingdoms.  

The Visigoths established control of the peninsula by 456 CE.  The Visigothic administration maintained many aspects of Roman life, including aqueducts, bridges, and roads.  The Visigoths ruled the peninsula for nearly three centuries.

In 572 CE, the Visigoths captured Cordoba, the former capital of the Roman province Hispania Baetica.  The city retained much of its Roman identity.

III.  Islamic Spain

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In 711 CE, a mix of Arab and Berber forces crossed the Straits of Gibraltar from northern Africa and overthrew the Visigothic kingdom.  

By 718 CE the Muslim invaders dominated most of the peninsula.  The Muslim-controlled area of Iberia was known as Al-Andalus, and for four centuries it covered most of the peninsula.  Only small Christian kingdoms remained in the North.  The Muslims brought great advancements in agriculture, architecture, science, and math to the peninsula.

By 1010 CE Al-Andalus was divided by civil war, fragmenting into smaller political units, known as the "taifa" kingdoms.  A separate leader ruled each taifa, and boundaries were flexible and changed often.  

IV.  Reconquista

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As Al-Andalus was fragmenting, the Christians in the North began efforts to re-conquer their land from the Muslims.  This effort was known as the "Reconquista."  Existing kingdoms grew larger and new kingdoms formed as well.  Each Christian kingdom had separate laws, customs, and languages.

In 1128 CE, the kingdom of Portugal was established.  Portugal has remained a separate political identity from Spain ever since.

In 1137 CE, Aragon and Cataluyna united to form the kingdom of Aragon.  

In 1230 CE, Castile and Leon united under Fernando III to form the largest and most powerful Iberian kingdom.  Thereafter followed centuries of relatively unchanging borders.

In 1469 CE the marriage of the heir to the Argonese throne, Fernando, married the heir to the Castilian throne, Isabella.  This “union” left the majority of the peninsula united, with the exception of the only remaining Muslim holding, Granada.

In 1492 CE Castile-Leon captured Granada, bringing an end to the “Reconquista” and completing the reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula.