What happened in the 73 years between the publication of Copernicus’s De revolutionibus in 1543 and the Galileo affair which begins in 1616?Debates over the bible and CopernicanismTroublesome passages
(1) References to the stability of the earth--e.g., Psalm 93:1 & Ecclesiastes 1:4.
"The Lord has become King,(2) References to the sun's motion with respect to the terrestrial horizon. E.g., Ecclesiastes 1:5 & Psalm 104: 19.
clothed with majesty;
the Lord is robed, girded with might.
The earth is established immovably;
your throne is established from of old; from all eternity you are God."(3) The sun's at rest--Joshua 10: 12-13.
The Protestant reaction to Copernicanism
John Calvin (1509-64) probably never heard of the theory.Martin Luther's position is uncertain. Famous statement in Table Talks--"that fool wants to turn the whole art of astronomy upside down" (1539). Philipp Melanchthon (1547-1560) ? accepted parts of the theory but rejected the earth’s motion on grounds of Biblical suggestions of the stability of the earth.
Conclusion: Protestant positions on Copernicanism were diverse
Some Protestants & Catholics appealed to a compromise cosmology, that of Tycho Brahe.Tycho Brahe (Danish, 1546-1601)Worked on the misty island of Hveen near Copenhagen
Proposed a new cosmology-The earth is stationary & at the center
The sun revolves around the earth & is the center of the motion of planets and starsMight be called "geoheliocentric."
Catholic Biblical hermeneutics
At the Council of Trent (1545-1563), was debate over the interpretation of scripture. The Scholastics favored the Vulgate (Jerome's Latin translation of the Bible from 390-405 A.D.) and the Church Fathers (L&N 86).
A group of Spanish Humanists mostly from the U. of Salamanca favored the new humanism and its approach toward interpreting texts. In the case of scripture this meant using Hebrew and Greek.
The Scholastics won.But in contrast to the Protestant Reformers, Catholic interpreters allowed for allegorical and analogical interpretations.Thus in principle, the Catholic Church should have been in a better position to handle Copernicanism. But in fact, it did not handle it well.
Copernicus's theory was not discussed at the Council.The Council also appealed to Aquinas as one of the most important theologians of Christianity. Aquinas was an Aristotelian. Thus Aristotelian science became linked to Catholic theology
General conclusions
In the second half of 1500s, Copernicus' book was read by astronomers in both Catholic and Protestant countries, but there were few "Copernicans," few defenders of the theory
Both Protestants and Catholics interpreted the passages of scripture which appear to refer to cosmology literally.
The Protestants because the meaning of the passages seemed clear on the surface (Luther’s doctrine of private interpretation).
And Catholics because this interpretation was that of the Church fathers
Galileo’s life
Born in Pisa in 1564Family moved to Florence when Galileo was 10
Studied medicine at Pisa; then turned to mathematics
Taught at the University of Pisa from 1589 to 1592
Then took at position at the University of Padua from 1592 to 1610Took a mistress (Marina Gamba) and fathered three children
In 1609 heard about the telescope.
- Invented in the Netherlands in 1608.
- Galileo manufactured one in his workshop.
- Used it before the Venetian Senate to leverage a doubling of his salary,
- then turned the telescope to the sky and made a series of momentous discoveries.
Found mountains & craters on the moon.
Found 4 satellites revolving around Jupiter. Galileo named them the Medicean planets.Significance of this discovery for the Ptolemaic system: Not all celestial bodies are revolve around the earth.
Found new stars.Found that the Milky Way is made up of a large number of stars.
Described earthshine — light from the sun reflecting off of the earth onto the moon
In 1610, Galileo published these findings in The Starry Messenger.He dedicated the book to the Grand Duke Cosimo II de’Medici.
The book was an immediate sensation and made Galileo famous overnight.
On the day that Galileo’s Sidereus Nuncius was published, March 13, 1610, Sir Henry Wotton, the British Ambassador to Venice, wrote to his home office about the "strangest piece of news that hath ever yet received from any part of the world . . ." He goes on to describe Galileo’s use of the telescope and his discovery of "four new planets" (the moons of Jupiter), the "true cause of the Via Lactae," and "lastly that the moon is not spherical, but endued with many prominences," . . . and "illuminated with the solar light by reflection from the body of the earth." He continues that these discoveries will certainly overturn all astronomy and astrology. He observes that here in Italy "all corners are full" of talk about these discoveries. He concludes the report by observing that Galileo "runneth a fortune to be either exceedingly famous or exceedingly ridiculous."The book does not contain a direct defense of the Copernican theory nor does it contain any direct evidence for the Copernican theory.But it does seriously challenge the Ptolemaic theory & it contains hints that Galileo intended to support the Copernican theory.After the publication, Galileo made new discoveries: sunspots, the rings of Saturn, & phases of Venus.The phases of Venus was an important discovery because it provided strong support for the Copernican theory.Chronically pressed for moneyHad three children to supportand agreed to provide dowries for his two sisters
his brother, Michelangiolo, constantly asked him for money
Negotiated a position as Chief Mathematician and Philosopher to the Grand Duke Cosimo II & moved to Florence (1610).Visited Rome and moved in highest circles, including visit with Pope Paul V.In 1613, a friend of Galileo and a Benedictine monk, Castelli, attended a breakfast in Pisa. The Grand Duchess Christina was present.
Christina raised the issue of the compatibility of Copernicanism with Scripture.Castelli gave Galileo an account of the discussion.
Galileo responded with a "Letter to Castelli" (1613). He enlarged the letter in 1615 and retitled it "Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina."In 1615-16, Galileo lobbied for acceptance of Copernican theory.
Why was the Copernican theory controversial?Brooke & Cantor’s suggestions (108)
(John Hedley Brooke & Geoffrey Cantor, Reconstructing Nature: The Engagement of Science and Religion (NY: Oxford UP, 1999))1. Violated the Aristotelian dichotomy between the corrupt sublunar & the superlunary regions of the cosmos2. Special place of humanity
3. Scriptural issues (will cover later)4. Epistemological issue: Can mathematical astronomy say anything about the physical cosmos?
The Condemnation of 1616 & the "first trial"
Galileo while on a social visit to Rome, was called before Cardinal Bellarmine (Bellarmino) and, at the Pope’s instructions, was informed of the forthcoming
condemnation of Copernicanism & was ordered to no longer teach and defend the theory.Galileo acquiesced to the order.
The order did not preclude discussing Copernicanism as a mathematical hypothesisMichael Sharratt observes that "it was the intervention of the Inquisition and the Index in 1616 that was at the root of the trouble [the later trial]. That was when it all went wrong. . . . " (131). (Michael Sharratt. Galileo: Decisive Innovator. NY: Cambridge UP, 1994.)
The next day, the Congregation of the Index issued a public condemnation of the Copernican theory.
Events leading up to the trial
In 1623, Pope Gregory XV died; Matteo Barbarini elected new pope & took the name of Urban VIII.
Galileo was acquainted with him through previous visits to Rome. In 1624, Galileo visited Urban VIII six times.
In 1632, on the assumption that there was a new spirit of openness in Rome, Galileo published the Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief Systems--Ptolemaic and Copernican.
Contains a strong defense of the Copernican theory, albeit disguised in the dialogue form.Defends Copernicanism with "Galilean relativity."Proposes a version of the principle of inertia.
Galileo miscalculated the mood in Rome.In 1632, he was ordered to appear before the Roman Inquisition.
Trial began in early 1633.
The trial of 1633 (the "second trial")The charge: Galileo had disobeyed Bellarmine’s order of 1616.The Copernican theory was not debated at the trial.
Galileo was convicted.Sentence: Banning of the Dialogue; imprisonment; & reading of penitential Psalms.
The sentence of imprisonment was immediately changed by Urban VIII to house arrest.
After leaving Rome, Galileo resided for several months with his friend, Archbishop Piccolomini of Siena.Then returned to his villa Arcetri outside of Florence.
Resumed his scientific research.
Gradually become blind.Died at Arcetri in 1642.
Buried in church of Santa Croce, Florence, across from Michelangelo.
Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina (1613; 1615; 1636)
Is principally a discussion about how to handle conflicts between scripture and scienceThe passages at issue: Psalm 92:1; Psalm 103:5; Ecclesiastes 1:5.
Appeal to the authority of Augustine for interpreting some passages of scripture metaphorically.
The two-book metaphor (182 & 183).God reveals self in two ways--nature and the BibleThus no contradition between these two forms of revelation is possible-- truth is one.
The significance of the two book metaphor for the relation between science & religion
The Principle of Accommodation ? the scriptures were often written in plain language to accommodate the understanding of common people.
Principle of modification by scientific demonstration (183, 194, 197, 206-07)If there is a conflict between science and scripture, then the interpretation of scripture must be changed only where the scientific position has been demonstrated.Otherwise the traditional interpretation of scripture stands.
How Galileo thought this applied to Copernicanism -- the argument from tides
Principle of Neutrality (183, 185, 186) ? Scripture is neutral with respect to scientific theory & when scripture says something about physical phenomena, these statements have no bearing on science. "The intention of the Holy Spirit is to teach us how one goes to heaven, not how the heavens go" (186). Cf. Gould’s NOMA.Galileo blundered by accepting Bellarmine’s high standard of scientific truth.
Comments on the letter
The P. of modification by scientific demonstration appeals to a very high standard for scientific truth--certitude, conclusive proof--one proposed by Bellarmine--.But it was also the standard of Aristotle, & on this issue, Galileo accepted Aristotle’s position.
The two principles are inconsistent.
The Principle of Neutrality is commonplace in contemporary biblical hermeneutics.The Principle of Neutrality may be a good principle for biblical hermeneutics, but is it a good principle for the relationship between science and religion generally?
Interpreting the trial
Was it simply a clash of religious authority with a scientist’s freedom of expression?Some other factors
Galileo’s personalityCopernicanism was not well-confirmed
The attitude of the Roman censors was that Galileo had no right to meddle in biblical hermeneutics .
The new conservatism of Rome in the face of the Reformation.Part of this new conservatism was a new biblical literalism.
A change in worldview ? demotion of place of humans in the universe; the idea of the fittingness of humans at the center of the universe. Thomas Kuhn: "Copernicanism was potentially destructive of an entire fabric of thought. . . . More than a few lines of scripture were at stake." (The Copernican Revolution 192).
The alliance of Aristotle with Catholic theology via Aquinas at the Council of Trent (1545-1563).
The 1992 Vatican apologia
In October of 1992, Pope John Paul II before the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, offered an apology for the Galileo affair.Cardinal Paul Poupard of France gave the speech (he head the commission which studied the case).
Theologians who attacked Galileo failed to understand the Scripture should not be taken literally when it described the physical world.Galileo suffered greatly from these errors.
Complemented Galileo for being more perceptive in his interpretation of Scripture than the theologians who opposed him.
Nothing was said about the condemnation of 1616, which set off the chain of events leading to the trial