Hist 387_5 Some additional aspects concerning the 'Hundred Philosophical Schools'

The 'Age of Philosophy' in a Time of War
The emergence of the 'Hundred Philosophical Schools' was the result of changes in the political and economic scene of the Zhou. Extensive warfare with all its implications led to the search for an ideal government and the realization of ideals in education which ultimately would lead to the evolution of a humane society. This society would ideally be constituted by rulers and subjects of high morale. Driven by loyalty and ethical considerations, all levels of the social hierarchy would be responsible, honest, and righteous personalities. The ways to achive this ideal were very different.
The change from chariot warfare to battles with large infantries and cavalry units called for military experts. In this climate, Master Sun, Sunzi or Sun Wu (6th cent. BCE) wrote the famous book 'The Art of War'. Different from what the title seems to suggest, Sunzi teaches that the most successful general is the one who spares lives, of his own men and of the enemy, but skillfully applies strategies and tactics that avoid major bloodshed.

Confucianists (School of the Scholars, rujia):
It was not during the lifetime of Confucius that Confucianism became a dominant school. Therefore Confucius regarded his mission as failed. Only in the Han Dynasty (206 BCE-22 CE) were his philosophical maxims appreciated as an influential force in the formation of statecraft and ritual, and formed the basis of education. Nevertheless different philosophical schools competed even then.

Finally, in the process of re-evaluation of antique values and the evolution of a metaphysical superstructure during the Song Dynasty (960-1279) Confucianism gained the dominant importance for the individual and the state that makes us today identify certain ideas and concepts as characteristically Confucian.

Confucius (551 - 479 BCE):
- saw himself not as as the inventor of a philosophical tradition but as a teacher who transmitted the values of the ancient sages to his contemporaries ("I transmit, I invent nothing. I trust and love the past"); his main concerns were ethics and morale; the fact that his teachings were the most effective in Chinese history compared to other schools, shows that his ideals were considered applicable in social and political life; his ideals are summarized in his 'Analects', composed by his disciples between 465 and 450 BCE.

- Confucius came from a family of impoverished aristocrats and worked until the age of 22 as the supervisor of the granaries owned by the influential Ji clan. Dissatisfied with his job he began to teach and became a popular teacher. One of the reasons for his popularity may have been that he did not make a difference between wealthy and poor disciples. The idea of self cultivation dominated his teachings; taking responsibility for one's actions, behavior, and countenance was essential in order to attain moral perfection. And moral perfection could serve as a model which would be emulated by others.

- Rituals and ceremonies were the means to define and form moral conduct in politics as in everyday family life. Education will teach moral behavior, ritual will be used to put the ideals into practice. This will unfailingly lead to mutual respect between individuals and social classes. Ultimately the result will be peace within society. To rulers who were experienced in warfare and trained in getting rid of opponents by killing and betrayal these ideals must have been exceptionally challenging. Though ruling through benevolence was not necessarily on their agenda, eventually some rulers were impressed enough to call Confucius to an official position. He became a rather successful official for some time but finally quit his job when he wanted to indicate his objections against his lord's negligent conduct as a ruler. (The ruler of Lu had more fun with the 80 ladies who sang and danced at his court than with the government of his state.)

Confucius believed that if his teachings were firmly embedded within the smallest unit of the state, the family, the multiplication factor would inevitablt lead to a harmonized state because on every level of society his social values of civility would be shared and honored.

Menzius (ca. 372 - 289 BCE)
- also hailed from the state Lu. Since his father died early his mother had to face all the difficulties single mothers have to overcome. She educated her son herself and instilled in him a love for studying. As an adult he became an advisor to several aristocrats which he openly critisized for their often ostentatious lifestyle. His critique was based on the idea that the innate nature of man at birth was good, independent from one's social position. Education could help to lead a person to moral perfection, no matter what his or her material or social background was. Since man is the most important creature in the cosmos, humaneness ought to be a ruler's goal, not craving to accumulate the riches for himself. Every ruler depended on his subjects. Therefore he should treat them with benevolence. Otherwise the people could revolt against a tyrannical head of state - a deserved punishment for his misbehavior. Mencius defined the welfare of the people as the basis of a wealthy and well ordered state. Filiality and respect were the pillars of a well-ordered family.

Xunzi (ca. 310 - 210 BCE; 298? - 238 BCE)
- just as in the teachings of Confucius and Mencius the basis of his ideals were humaneness and morality. Yet confronted with the harsh reality of his times he was convinced that the innate nature of man at birth is bad. Only education and self-cultivation can improve his moral behavior. Without education man is prone to follow his basic instincts of greed and avarice. And only education can secure the order of a hierarchical society. Without this order the state is prone to fall into chaos. To preserve this order, a set of laws was considered essential.

Daoists (daojia):

Laozi (?), supposedly the author of the Daodejing (Classic of the Way and Integrity) which was written before 300 BCE.

Laozi riding his water buffalo when leaving China
Zhuangzi (355? - 275 BCE; 365 - 290 BCE)

Different from the other schools mentioned here, the Daoists were less concerned with the role of the individual within society. Much more important than the process of 'cultivation' and 'socialization' of a person that was suitable for society, the Daoists stressed the importance of the overwhelming power and significance of nature. Man and his 'artificial' constructs of society were considered far less important than the recognition that man is but one -minor- element within the great cosmological order. The inherent order in nature could be understood once the 'Way' was identified as the observance and acceptance of the cycles of nature. This ideology was hardly suitable to construct political entities for statecraft but served those who preferred the path of an (inner) immigration from social responsibilities.
Education was seen as restraint, a forceful adaptation of abstract ideals not inherent in man. While Daoism may provide the individual with insight and mental balance, it rejected hierarchies of authorities and to some degree is anarchistic. Collective action was just as opposed as the force exerted in the process of education, the force to acknowledge a defined role within the social hierarchy that aimed at stability through subjugation. Daoism supported individuality, spontaneity, and uninhibited authenticity of the personality. To act in accordance with one's nature, not against one's nature was the goal. To complete one's life cycle in peace and harmony of body and mind was the ultimate realization of the Dao.

Mohists (School of the 'Preachers'):
Mozi or Mo Di (480? - 400 BCE?)

- was the most egalitarian of the important philosophers of the time since his teachings did not allow for privileges of the class of 'gentlemen' over the common people. Cultural refinement, luxury, music, and the fine arts were considered superfluous because they did not help to unify the population. Instead they solidified or created differences in society, as did the Confucian concept of unconditioned loyalty among family and clan-members. Luxuries had to be produced by many to delight a few, an unjust distribution of the functionality of such objects.

- Impartial care for everyone,
- the abolition of aggressive wars (not self-defense),
- and the functionality of production

were the three components forming Mozi's teachings.

Legalists (School of the 'Theorists of the State'; fajia):
- can be considered as the first philosophers who tried set up a system of legal regulations and penal laws that were to be acknowledged by all members of society - from slave to ruler. The demands of the legalists were feared by the Confucianists because they positioned obeisance of laws above benevolence and humaneness.

Shen Buhai (400 - 337 BCE)
Shang Yang (390 - 338 BCE)
- was the most rigorous among the legalists: He stated that the wise man creates laws, the dumb man will be ruled by laws.

Laws replaced ethical requirements such as morality, humaneness, filial piety, self-cultivation and loyalty.

A politically weak but physically able people is the foundation of a strong state. In order to keep the state strong and the laws effective severe punishments were to be installed that could be applied to anybody, regardless of his social position.

A productive agriculture was seen as the essential basis for the state, artisanship and trade were of secondary importance.

The military was to be strengthened, weights and measured to be unified. All of these measures were put into practice in the state of Qin where Shang Yang was appointed as an advisor to the ruler in 361 BCE, the ruler who came to be the despotic First Emperor, Qin Shihuangdi. Confucian ceremonies were regarded as expensive and superfluous. The Confucian ideals derived from the past seemed inappropriate to Shang Yang who argued that decisions had to be made in accordance with contemprary requirements instead of old traditions. Society needed control; therefore he divided the population into units of ten and five households each. All group members were mutually responsible. This census was the basis for individual taxation: Every man aged 16 was registered as an adult tax payer, for labor services, and military service. Hereditary ranks and titles were abolished, new ranks and promotions were conferred only according to performance.

Han Feizi (280 - 234 BCE)
- was a descendant from the ruling house of the state of Han. He was a disciple of Xunzi but criticized the Confucianists for their veneration of the traditions af antiquity because he considered them as outdated. A strong state had to rely on a functioning administration, controlled by law abiding officials.
Social justice and peace had to be achieved by this reliable administration, without the active control by the ruler who should live in seclusion. Yet in fact the ruler was involved in active governing by promoting and demoting his officials, through his control of his ministers, when distributing emoluments, and when assigning payments for specified tasks. As his teacher Xunzi, Master Han Fei was convinced that man's innate nature was bad. Laws and regulations for punishments were considered essential instruments for the ruler to govern his subjects. Agriculture was seen as the basis of the state because the welfare of the people depended on agricultural products. Education should be functional; overly refined minds were prone to abuse their knowledge and deceive and betray others.

Agriculturalists:

Xu Xing (390? - 315? BCE)

Yin Yang School:

Zou Yan (ca. 305 - 240 BCE)