Contrastive Vowels

  Maa has nine distinct vowels. (For some comparison, Swahili and Spanish have only five, while English arguably has thirteen.)  The Maa vowels divide into two sets, depending on whether the tongue root is moved forward (enlarging the throat cavity); or is in a neutral position or moved backwards (reducing the throat cavity). The size of the throat cavity affects the acoustic sound waves that travel through the air, making the sounds distinct as they are first perceived by the hearer's ear, and then interpreted by the brain. When the tongue root is moved forward, this is referred to as Advanced Tongue Root (+ATR or "close"); when the tongue root is in a neutral or retracted position, the sound is referred to as Non-advanced or Retracted Tongue Root (-ATR or "open"). There is simply nothing like this distinction in Swahili or Indo-European languages, and it requires considerable practice for someone whose first language does not have such sound contrasts to reliably recognize, and produce, the difference.
    Many Maa words differ from each other just by a change in the ATR value of a vowel. Thus, it is important to represent all nine vowels, which we do here as follows:
 

 
    With these nine symbols, the fact that the following words sound different can be represented:
 

Tongue Root: For some languages, linguists have proposed that it may be a downward movement of the larynx that creates the larger pharyngeal cavity.  But whether it is a movement of the tongue root or a movement of the larynx, the significant feature is enlargement of the pharyngeal cavity.