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          |  |  |  Does adoption jeopardize the mental 
              and emotional health of children, making adoptees especially vulnerable 
              to developmental, behavioral, and academic problems? Most people 
              connected to adoption today think it does. Most Americans agree 
              that adoption is a “risk factor,” according to public 
              opinion polls. The belief that adoption has a psychology of its own is recent, 
              indebted to a tradition of controversial clinical studies linking 
              adoption to psychopathology. Beginning around World War II, some 
              mental health professionals, often influenced by psychoanalysis, 
              proposed that the losses associated with adoption made normal development 
              tricky for adopted children and stability difficult to achieve for 
              adoptive families. The new worries about adoption generated by psychopathology 
              studies added to already well established concerns that available 
              children were feeble-minded and 
              adoption unusually risky. Psychopathology studies equated difference with damage. They helped 
              to transform adoption into a full-fledged object of casework and 
              counseling, and this was essential for the emergence of therapeutic 
              adoption. The rapid spread of post-adoption services, non-existent 
              in 1950, indicates that many parents and professionals now accept 
              the need for long-term, perhaps permanent, help in order to avoid 
              or manage adoption-related problems.  Awareness that the parties to adoption face unique psychological 
              challenges may well be one of the things that makes twentieth-century 
              adoption practices historically distinctive—as distinctive 
              as the psychology of adoption itself. |  
         
          | Chronological 
              List of Psychopathology Studies
               
                | 1937 | David M. Levy, “Primary Affect Hunger,” 
                    American Journal of Psychiatry 94 (November 1937):643-652. |   
                | 1937 | Sydney Tarachow, “The Disclosure of Foster-Parentage 
                    to a Boy: Behavior Disorders and Other Psychological Problems 
                    Resulting,” American Journal of Psychiatry 
                    94 (September 1937):401-412 |   
                | 1938 | Edwina A. Cowan, “Some Emotional Problems Besetting 
                    the Lives of Foster Children,” Mental Hygiene 
                    22 (July 1938):454-458. |   
                | 1941 | Robert P. Knight, “Some Problems in Selecting and 
                    Rearing Adopted Children,” Bulletin of the Menninger 
                    Clinic 5 (May 1941):65-74. |   
                | 1942 | Elsie Stonesifer, “The Behavior Difficulties of Adopted 
                    and Own Children,” Smith College Studies in Social 
                    Work 13 (November-December 1942):161. |   
                | 1944 | Houston McKee Mitchell, “Adopted Children as Patients 
                    of a Mental Hygiene Clinic,” Smith College Studies 
                    in Social Work 15 (1944):122-123. |   
                | 1952 | E. Wellisch, “Children Without Genealogy—A 
                    Problem of Adoption,” Mental Health 13 (1952):41-42. |   
                | 1953 | Portia Holman, “Some Factors in the Aetiology of 
                    Maladjusted Children,” Journal of Mental Science 
                    99 (1953):654-688. |   
                | 1953 | Bernice T. Eiduson and Jean B. Livermore, “Complications 
                    in Therapy with Adopted Children,” American Journal 
                    of Orthopsychiatry 23 (October 1953):795-802 |   
                | 1954 | National Association for Mental Health, A Survey Based 
                    on Adoption Case Records (London: National Association 
                    for Mental Health, 1954 est.). |   
                | 1960 | Marshall D. Schechter, 
                    “Observations on Adopted Children,” Archives 
                    of General Psychiatry 3 (July 1960):21-32. |   
                | 1961 | M.L. Kellmer Pringle, “The Incidence of Some Supposedly 
                    Adverse Family Conditions and of Left-Handedness in Schools 
                    for Maladjusted Children,” British Journal of Educational 
                    Psychology 31, no. 2 (June 1961):183-193. |   
                | 1961 | Bruce Gardner, Glenn R. Hawkes, and Lee G. Burchinal, “Noncontinuous 
                    Mothering in Infancy and Development in Later Childhood,” 
                    Child Development 32 (June 1961):225-234. |   
                | 1962 | Betty K. Ketchum, “An Exploratory Study of the Disproportionate 
                    Number of Adopted Children Hospitalized at Columbus Children's 
                    Psychiatric Hospital” (Masters Thesis, Ohio State University, 
                    1962). |   
                | 1962 | Povl W. Toussieng, “Thoughts Regarding the Etiology 
                    of Psychological Difficulties in Adopted Children,” 
                    Child Welfare (February 1962):59-65, 71. |   
                | 1962 | Frances Lee Anderson Menlove, “Acting Out Behavior 
                    in Emotionally Disturbed Adopted Children” (Ph.D., University 
                    of Michigan, 1962). |   
                | 1963 | Michael Humphrey and Christopher Ounsted, “Adoptive 
                    Families Referred for Psychiatric Advice,” British 
                    Journal of Psychiatry 109 (1963):599-608. |   
                | 1963 | Jerome D. Goodman, Richard M. Silberstein, and Wallace 
                    Mandell, “Adopted Children Brought to Child Psychiatric 
                    Clinic,” Archives of General Psychiatry 9, 
                    no. 5 (November 1963):451-456. |   
                | 1964 | Marshall D. Schechter et al., “Emotional Problems 
                    in the Adoptee,”Archives of General Psychiatry 
                    10 (February 1964):109-118. |   
                | 1964 | H. J. Sants, “Genealogical Bewilderment in Children 
                    with Substitute Parents,” British Journal of Medical 
                    Psychology 37, no. 1964 (1964):133-141. |   
                | 1964 | H. David Kirk, Shared Fate: 
                    A Theory of Adoption and Mental Health (New York: 
                    The Free Press of Glencoe, 1964). |   
                | 1965 | Frances Lee Menlove, “Aggressive Symptoms in Emotionally 
                    Disturbed Adopted Children,” Child Development 
                    36, no. 2 (June 1965):519-532. |   
                | 1966 | Nathan M. Simon and Audrey G. Senturia, “Adoption 
                    and Psychiatric Illness,” American Journal of Psychiatry 
                    122, no. 8 (February 1966):858-868. |   
                | 1966 | H. David Kirk, “Are Adopted Children Especially Vulnerable 
                    to Stress? A Critique of Some Recent Assertions,” Archives 
                    of General Psychiatry 14 (March 1966):291-298. |   
                | 1966 | Alfred Kadushin, “Adoptive Parenthood: A Hazardous 
                    Adventure?,” Social Work (July 1966):30-39. |   
                | 1968 | Shirley A. Reece and Barbara Levin, “Psychiatric 
                    Disturbances in Adopted Children: A Descriptive Study,” 
                    Social Work (January 1968):101-111. |   
                | 1970 | Marshall D. Schechter, “About Adoptive Parents,” 
                    in Parenthood: Its Psychology and Psychopathology, 
                    eds. E. James Anthony and Therese Benedek (Boston: Little, 
                    Brown and Company, 1970), 353-371. |   
                | 1975 | Arthur D. Sorosky, Annette Baran, and Reuben Pannor, “Identity 
                    Conflicts in Adoptees,” American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 
                    45 (January 1975):18-27. |   
                | 1988 | David Kirschner and Linda S. Nagel, “Antisocial Behavior 
                    in Adoptees: Patterns and Dynamics,” Child and Adolescent 
                    Social Work 5, no. 4 (Winter 1988):300-314. |   
                | 1990 | David Kirschner, “The Adopted Child Syndrome: Considerations 
                    for Psychotherapy,” Psychotherapy in Private Practice 
                    8, no. 3 (1990):93-100. |   
                | 1990 | David Brodzinsky and Marshall Schechter, eds., The 
                    Psychology of Adoption (New York: Oxford University Press, 
                    1990). |   
                | 1993 | Nancy Newton Verrier, The Primal Wound: Understanding 
                    the Adopted Child (Baltimore, MD: Gateway Press, 1993). |   
                | 1995 | P.F. Sullivan, J.E. Wells, and J.A. Bushnell, “Adoption 
                    as a Risk Factor for Mental Disorders,” Acta Psychiatrica 
                    Scandinavica 92, no. 2 (August 1995):119-124.  |   
                | 1995 | Katarina Wegar, “Adoption and Mental Health: A Theoretical 
                    Critique of the Psychopathological Model,” American 
                    Journal of Orthopsychiatry 65 (October 1995):540-548. 
                   |   
                | 1998 | Joyce Maguire Pavao, The Family of Adoption (Boston: 
                    Beacon Press, 1998). |   
                | 1998 | Jeffrey J. Haugaard, “Is adoption a risk factor for 
                    the development of adjustment problems?,” Clinical 
                    Psychology Review 18, no. 1 (January 1998):47-69. |    |    |