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Animal Info - Black = Rhinoceros

(Other Names: Browse Rhinoceros, Hooked-lipped = Rhinoceros,=20 Kifaru, Prehensile-lipped Rhinoceros, Rhinoc=E9ros Noir, Rinoceronte = Negro)

Diceros bicornis

Sta= tus:=20 Critically Endangered

Contents

1. = Profile=20 (= Picture)
2.=20 = Tidbits
3.=20 <= B>Status=20 and Trends (IUC= N=20 Status, Countries=20 Where Currently Found, Population=20 Estimates, = History=20 of Distribution, = Threats=20 and Reasons= for=20 Decline)
4. = Data on=20 Biology and Ecology (W= eight,=20 = Habitat,=20 Age = to=20 Maturity, Gestation=20 Period, Bi= rth=20 Season, Birth=20 Rate, Ea= rly=20 Development, Dispersal,=20 Maximum=20 Age, Die= t, Behavior=20 (S= enses,=20 Activity=20 Patterns, Movement,=20 Attitude),=20 S= ocial=20 Organization (G= roups,=20 Relations,=20 M= ating),=20 Age=20 and Gender Distribution, = Density=20 and Range)
5. References=20

Profile

Pictures: Black = Rhino #1=20 (13 Kb JPEG) (Intl. = Rhino=20 Found. 2002); Black Rhino = #2 (19 Kb=20 JPEG) (Czech=20 Web Site); Black = Rhino #3=20 (21 Kb JPEG) (Univ. Alaska = Mus.)

The black rhino weighs 800 - 1400 kg (1760 - 3080 lb). Its height = varies from=20 1.3 - 1.8 m (4.3 - 5.9'). The black rhino has 2 horns.  Its skin is = dark=20 yellow-brown to dark brown or dark gray. The black rhino occurs in a = wide=20 variety of habitats, from desert areas in Namibia to = wetter=20 forested areas in the highlands of Kenya, to savannas and = bushveld = areas where=20 the highest densities of black rhino occur. The black rhino is a browser. It = prefers=20 leaves, twigs and branches from small acacia=92s and other woody shrubs = and small=20 trees as well as herbs=20 and legumes. = When the=20 weather is hot, the black rhino drinks water daily and must be within = walking=20 distance of water. In cooler temperatures it can go without drinking = water for=20 up to 5 days if its food is moist. The black rhino=92s eyesight is poor, = but its=20 hearing is good. Its sense of smell is well developed and is probably = the most=20 important of its senses. 

Although its belligerence has been exaggerated, the black rhino is=20 unpredictable and can be a dangerous animal, sometimes charging a = disturbing=20 sound or smell. Black rhinos are predominantly solitary, the most = commonly=20 observed groups being lone males or adult females with young. Black = rhinos that=20 share a part or all or their range exhibit a familiarity with one = another=20 instead of the aggression that they exhibit to total strangers. Although = at=20 times several bulls may court a female simultaneously without apparent=20 antagonism, serious fights and frequent deaths result from conflicts = between=20 males over estrous=20 females. A premating bond develops between the bull and the cow, and the = pair=20 remain together during resting and feeding. They sleep in contact with = each=20 other.

The black rhino was formerly found in suitable habitat over most of = Africa=20 south of the Sahara, from southwestern Angola across = the Cape=20 Province up to East Africa and north, avoiding the Congo Basin and its = rain=20 forests, to Somalia=20 and southwestern Ethiopia, = then=20 westward along a strip between the Sahara and the Congo and Nigerian = forests to=20 the region of Lake Chad. The black rhino population suffered an enormous = reduction from a probable several hundred thousand at the start of the = 20th=20 century to less than 2,500 by the early 1990s. However, since 1995, = black rhino=20 numbers at a continental level have started increasing again. Hunting = and=20 clearance of land for settlement and agriculture were the major reasons = for the=20 decline of black rhino populations in the 20th century. The situation = facing the=20 black rhino is still critical. The demand for rhino horn from Asia (for=20 traditional medicines) and from the Middle East (for dagger handles) = persists,=20 and the threat of a return to large-scale poaching is still = present. 

Tidbits

*** Africa's two rhino species, the black rhino and the white rhino, = are not=20 named for their colors but for the shape of their lips. The black = rhino's lips=20 are narrow, and the upper lip is hook-shaped (for browsing leaves). The = white=20 rhino's lips are wide and square-shaped (for grazing grass). The Dutch = settlers=20 (Boers) of South=20 Africa referred to the rhino with the wide, square-shaped lips with = the=20 Dutch word for "wide" - "wijde" to distinguish it from the hooked-lipped = rhino.=20 To English-speaking colonists, this sounded like the word "white", and = they=20 called it the "white" rhino. Then, to distinguish the other rhino, they = called=20 it the "black" rhino.

*** As early as the 8th century AD, Muslim traders were involved in = the trade=20 of rhino horn and ivory from the African coast to India and China. = Historical sources=20 indicate that demand for rhino horn was significant in the medieval = period.

*** In 1990 it was reported that in Guangzhou, China, = illegally imported=20 rhino horn sold for US$18,770/kg ($8,530/lb) (Cumming et al.=20 1990).

*** Black rhinos often have a symbiotic = relationship=20 with birds called "oxpeckers" (Buphagus africanus and B.=20 erythrorhynchus). The birds feed on external parasites of = the=20 rhinos, and with the birds' more acute eyesight than the rhinos', the = birds warn=20 the rhinos of potential danger.

*** Mortal combat between black rhinos, the most recorded for any = mammal,=20 results in about 50% of the male black rhinos and 30% of the female = black rhinos=20 dying from combat-related wounds (Berger &=20 Cunningham 1998).

*** The record length of a black rhino horn is 1.4 m (4.5') (Nowak = 1999).

*** Etymology of = the scientific = name of the black rhino: the genus name=20 ("Diceros"): "di" =3D "two" + "ceros" =3D "horn" = (Greek); the=20 species = name=20 ("bicornis"): "bi" =3D "two" + "cornis" =3D "horn" = (Latin)=20 (Intl.=20 Rhino Found. 2005).

Status and Trends

IUCN=20 Status:

[The IUCN=20 (International Union for the Conservation of Nature; also called the = World=20 Conservation Union) is the world=92s largest conservation organization. = Its=20 members include countries, government agencies, and non-governmental=20 organizations.  The IUCN determines the worldwide status of = threatened=20 animals and publishes the status in its Red=20 List.]

  • 1960's - 1970's: Vulnerable=20
  • 1980's - 1994: Endangered=20
  • 1996 - 2002: Critically = Endangered (Criteria: A2abc)  =
  • 2004: Critically Endangered = (Criteria: A2abc) = (Population=20 Trend: Increasing) (IUCN=20 2004)

Countries Where the Black Rhinoceros Is = Currently=20 Found:

2004: Occurs in Cameroon, Kenya, Malawi = (re-introduced),=20 Namibia, = Rwanda = (re-introduced),=20 South = Africa=20 (re-introduced), Swaziland=20 (re-introduced), Tanzania and = Zimbabwe. It = may be=20 extinct in Angola, Botswana, Chad, Mozambique, = and Zambia. = (IUCN=20 2004)

Population Estimates:

[Note: This is a long section. You can = skip to=20 the next section if you wish.]

[Note: Figures given are for wild populations only.] =

  • WORLD=20
    • Early 1900's: Probably several hundred thousand (IUCN=20 2004) =20
    • 1960's: More than 100,000 (Emslie &=20 Brooks 1999) =20
    • Late 1960's: 70,000 (Cumming et = al.=20 1990)=20
    • 1970: At least 65,000 (Nowak=20 1999) =20
    • Late 1970's: Less than 30,000 (Burton & = Pearson=20 1987)=20
    • 1980: About 15,000 (Nowak=20 1999) =20
    • 1981: 10,000 - 15,000 (Cumming et = al.=20 1990)=20
    • 1984: 8800 (Largen = &=20 Yalden 1987)=20
    • 1986: 3800 (Cumming et = al.=20 1990)=20
    • 1990: 3300 (Kingdon=20 1997) =20
    • 1991: 3000 (Oryx = 1991d)=20
    • 1992: 2450 (Focus=20 2000b)=20
    • 1994: 2550 (Oryx = 1994b)=20
    • 1995: 2410 (IUCN=20 2004) =20
    • 1997: 2600 (Emslie &=20 Brooks 1999)  =20
    • 1999: 2700 (IUCN=20 2004) =20
    • 2001: 3100 (IUCN=20 2004)  =20
    • 2005: 3610 (Intl. Rhino=20 Found. 2005) 
  • Angola=20
    • 1960: 150 - 200 (IUCN = 1966)=20  =20
    • 1997: 0?  (Emslie &=20 Brooks 1999) 
  • Botswana=20
    • 1960: 20 (IUCN=20 1966)=20
    • 1986: Less than 10 (Cumming et = al.=20 1990)  =20
    • 2003: 5 (Emslie=20 2004) 
  • Cameroon=20
    • 1960: 400 (IUCN = 1966)=20
    • 1986: Less than 30 (Cumming et = al.=20 1990)=20
    • 1997: 10  (Emslie &=20 Brooks 1999) =20
    • 2002: 8 (Intl. Rhino=20 Found. 2002)  =20
    • 2003: 5? (Emslie=20 2004) 
  • Central = African=20 Republic=20
    • 1960: 300? (IUCN = 1966)=20
    • 1980: About 3000 (Nowak=20 1999) =20
    • 1986: 10 (Cumming et = al.=20 1990)=20
    • 1997: 0  (Emslie &=20 Brooks 1999)   
  • Chad=20
    • 1960: 500 (IUCN = 1966)=20
    • 1986: Less than 30 (Cumming et = al.=20 1990)=20
    • 1997: 0?  (Emslie &=20 Brooks 1999) 
  • C=F4te = d=92Ivoire=20
    • 1960: A few (IUCN = 1966)=20  =20
    • 2003: 4 (Emslie=20 2004) 
  • The = Democratic=20 Republic of the Congo=20
    • 1960: A few (IUCN = 1966)=20
    • 1986: 0 (Cumming et = al.=20 1990)=20
    • 1997: 0 (Emslie &=20 Brooks 1999) 
  • Ethiopia=20
    • 1960: A few (IUCN = 1966)=20  =20
    • 2003: 4 (Emslie=20 2004) 
  • Kenya=20
    • 1960: 2500: (IUCN = 1966)=20
    • 1968: 11,000 (Oryx = 1978d)=20
    • 1969: 15,000 - 20,000 (Hillman = &=20 Martin 1979)=20
    • 1970: 2500 (Curry-Lindahl=20 1972)=20
    • 1973: 11,500 (Oryx = 1980d)=20
    • 1977: 1800 (Oryx = 1978d)=20
    • 1977: 2000 - 4000 (Hillman = &=20 Martin 1979)=20
    • 1979: Fewer than 1500 (Hillman = &=20 Martin 1979)=20
    • 1980: 1500 (Muruthi et = al.=20 2000)=20
    • 1983: Less than 350 (Focus=20 1997)=20
    • 1986: More than 521 (Cumming et = al.=20 1990)=20
    • 1987: 381 (Muruthi et = al.=20 2000)  =20
    • 1989: 366 (Focus=20 1995)=20
    • 1994: 430 (Focus=20 1995)=20
    • 1997: 420 (Brooks = &=20 Emslie 1997)=20
    • 2002: 430 (Emslie=20 2002)  =20
    • 2003: 437 (Emslie=20 2004) 
  • Malawi=20
    • 1960: 12? (IUCN = 1966)=20
    • 1986: 25 (Cumming et = al.=20 1990)=20
    • 1997: 3 (Emslie &=20 Brooks 1999) =20
    • 2002: 7 (Emslie=20 2002)  =20
    • 2003: 8 (Emslie=20 2004) 
  • Mozambique=20
    • 1960: 500 (IUCN = 1966)=20
    • 1986: Very low numbers (Cumming et = al.=20 1990)=20
    • 1997: 13 (Emslie &=20 Brooks 1999) =20
    • 2002: 0 (Emslie=20 2002)  
  • Namibia=20
    • 1960: 280 (IUCN = 1966)=20
    • 1966: 90 (Curry-Lindahl=20 1972)=20
    • 1986: 440 - 458 (Cumming et = al.=20 1990)=20
    • 1997: 707 (Emslie &=20 Brooks 1999) =20
    • 2002: 893 (Emslie=20 2002)  =20
    • 2003: 1238 (Emslie=20 2004) 
  • Rwanda=20
    • 1986: 15 (Cumming et = al.=20 1990)=20
    • 1997: 4 (Emslie &=20 Brooks 1999) =20
    • 2002: 0 (Emslie=20 2002)  =20
    • 2003: 1 (Emslie=20 2004) 
  • Somalia=20
    • 1960: Almost extinct (IUCN = 1966)=20
    • 1966: Fewer than 50 (Largen = &=20 Yalden 1987)=20
    • 1997: 0? (Emslie &=20 Brooks 1999) 
  • South = Africa=20
    • 1960: 408 (IUCN = 1966)=20
    • 1966: 312 (Curry-Lindahl=20 1972)=20
    • 1986: 577 (Cumming et = al.=20 1990)=20
    • 1988: 600 (Oryx = 1988c)=20
    • 1997: 1043 (Emslie &=20 Brooks 1999) =20
    • 2002: 1179 (Emslie=20 2002)  =20
    • 2003: 1284 (Emslie=20 2004) 
  • Sudan=20
    • 1960: 200 - 300 (IUCN = 1966)=20
    • 1986: 3 (Cumming et = al.=20 1990)=20
    • 1997: 0? (Emslie &=20 Brooks 1999) 
  • Swaziland=20
    • 1997: 10 (Emslie &=20 Brooks 1999) =20
    • 2002: 10 (Emslie=20 2002)  =20
    • 2003: 15 (Emslie=20 2004) 
  • Tanzania=20
    • 1960: 3000 - 4000 (IUCN = 1966)=20
    • 1970's: About 10,000 (Morgan-Davies=20 2001) =20
    • 1980: 3800  (Morgan-Davies=20 2001) =20
    • 1986: 265 - 285 (Cumming et = al.=20 1990)  =20
    • 1992: 100 (Morgan-Davies=20 2001) =20
    • 1997: 46 (Emslie &=20 Brooks 1999) =20
    • 2002: 49 (Emslie=20 2002)  =20
    • 2003: 66 (Emslie=20 2004) 
  • Uganda=20
    • 1960: 500 (IUCN = 1966)=20
    • 1997: 0 (Emslie &=20 Brooks 1999) 
  • Zambia=20
    • 1960: 400 (IUCN = 1966)=20
    • 1986: More than 106 (Cumming et = al.=20 1990)  =20
    • 1997: 0? (Emslie &=20 Brooks 1999) =20
    • 2003: 5 (Emslie=20 2004) 
  • Zimbabwe=20
    • 1960: 1500 (IUCN = 1966)=20
    • 1967: 1000 - 1400 (Roth = 1967)=20
    • 1969: 740 (Kerr & = Fothergill=20 1971)=20
    • 1986: More than 1754 (Cumming et = al.=20 1990)=20
    • 1992: About 1000 (Oryx = 1992)=20
    • 1995: 260 (Oryx = 1995j)=20
    • 1997: 339 (Emslie &=20 Brooks 1999) =20
    • 2002: 524 (Emslie=20 2002)  =20
    • 2003: 536 (Emslie=20 2004) 

History of Distribution:

The black rhino was formerly found in suitable habitat over most of = Africa=20 south of the Sahara, including the Cape region in the south, from = southwestern=20 Angola = across the=20 Cape Province to East Africa, and north, avoiding the Congo Basin and = its rain=20 forests, to Somaliland = and=20 southwestern Ethiopia, = then=20 westward along a strip between the Sahara and the Congo and Nigerian = forests to=20 the region of Lake Chad and the French Cameroons. Over this vast area = there were=20 localities where rhinos were absent, as along the coast of Kenya and Tanganyika = Territory,=20 or, reportedly, between the Chobe and the Zambezi Rivers (IUCN = 1966).

The black rhino population suffered an enormous reduction from a = probable=20 several hundred thousand at the start of the 20th century, to less than = 2,500 by=20 the early 1990s. From 1992-1995 total numbers remained relatively = stable, with=20 increases in some countries being cancelled out by declines in others. = However,=20 since 1995, black rhino numbers at a continental level have started = increasing=20 again. Many remaining black rhino are now concentrated in fenced = sanctuaries and=20 rhino conservation areas where law enforcement efforts can be = concentrated at=20 effective levels. Surplus animals have been translocated to set up new=20 populations. Four countries (Kenya, Namibia, South Africa = and Zimbabwe) = contain the=20 vast majority (97.6%) of remaining wild black rhino. (IUCN=20 2004)

Distribution=20 Map (50 Kb JPEG) (Intl. = Rhino=20 Found. 2004)

Threats and Reasons for Decline:

Hunting and clearance of land for settlement and agriculture were the = major=20 reasons for the decline of black rhino populations in the = 20th=20 century. In areas where colonial settlement occurred, the presence of = the=20 aggressive black rhino was considered unacceptable and in many areas it = was=20 systematically exterminated. It was also exterminated in tsetse fly = control=20 operations. Hunting for meat, hides and sport, and especially for the = rhino's=20 horn, was a major cause of decline, particularly after the introduction = of=20 modern firearms. In the last several decades of the 20th century, = killing of=20 rhinos to obtain the horn was been the predominant cause of rhino = mortality. In=20 addition to the decline in numbers, populations were increasingly = fragmented. In=20 1986, about 75% of 60 discrete populations reviewed comprised less than = 50=20 animals. (IUCN=20 1966, Curry-Lindahl=20 1972, Cumming et=20 al. 1990, IUCN=20 2004) 

The situation facing the black rhino is still critical. The = international=20 rhino horn trade ban and the domestic bans imposed in most traditional = user=20 countries have driven the trade further =91underground,=92 in some cases = inflating=20 prices and making illegal dealing even more lucrative. The demand for = horn from=20 Asia (for traditional medicines) and from the Middle East (for dagger = handles)=20 persists and the threat of a return to large-scale poaching is still = present.=20 Wars, civil unrest, poverty, influxes of refugees, and corruption on the = part of=20 some officials within countries where black rhino are found combine so = that=20 poachers can escape arrest and poverty-stricken people may become = poachers to=20 survive. (Emslie = & Brooks=20 1999) 

Data on Biology and = Ecology

Weight:

Adult black rhinos weigh 800 - 1400 kg (1760 - 3080 lb) (Nowak = 1999).=20 The size of the black rhino varies from one location in Africa to=20 another.  For example: averages of 855 kg (1881 lb) for 8 males = and 887=20 kg (1951 lb) for 6 females from Hluhluwe (South = Africa), and=20 averages of 1124 kg (2473 lb) for 11 males and 1081 kg (2378 lb) for 5 = females=20 from Kenya = (Hillman-Smith=20 & Groves 1994).  

The height of the black rhino varies from 1.32 - 1.80 m (4.33 - = 5.90')=20 (Hillman-Smith=20 & Groves 1994).

Habitat:

The black rhino occurs in a wide variety of habitats, from desert = areas in=20 Namibia = to wetter=20 forested areas in the highlands of Kenya, to savannas = and succulent = valley bushveld = areas where=20 the highest densities of black rhino occur. It is found mainly in the=20 transitional zone between grassland and forest, generally in thick = thornbush=20 or acacia scrub but also in more open country. It is not primarily a = grassland=20 or closed-canopy=20 forest animal but favors the edges of thickets and extensive areas of = short=20 woody growth. It is generally restricted to habitat within about 25 km = (16 mi)=20 of permanent water. (Kingdon = 1997, Nowak 1999, = IUCN=20 2004)

The black rhino is found in both the Horn of=20 Africa, Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany,=20 Cape=20 Floristic Region, Succulent=20 Karoo, and Coastal=20 Forests of Eastern Africa Biodiversity Hotspots (Cons.=20 Intl. 2005) and the East African Acacia Savannas = Global=20 200 Ecoregion. (Olson = &=20 Dinerstein 1998, Olson = &=20 Dinerstein 1999)

Age to Maturity:

Age at first mating in captive black rhinos varies from 4.5 - 9 = years, but=20 age at first fertile mating is from 6 - 9 years. In the wild, ages of = first=20 conception vary between populations, tending to increase in high = density=20 populations, or under poor conditions: 3.8 - 5.7 years in East Africa; = 3.5 - 4=20 years in Zimbabwe; = from 3=20 years 10 months - 9 years 1 month in the high density (introduced) = population=20 in Addo National Park, South = Africa. Age at=20 first birth was 6.5 years in a low-density population in Umfolozi = Reserve, South = Africa, and 12=20 years in a high-density population in the neighboring Hluhluwe = Reserve, South = Africa. Even=20 though they are capable of reproduction, young males do not breed = until they=20 gain a territory=20 or dominant status, usually when they are about 10 years old. = (Hillman-Smith=20 & Groves 1994, Kingdon = 1997, Rachlow &=20 Berger 1998) 

Gestation Period:

419 - 478 days (14 - 16 months) (Nowak = 1999).=20

Birth Season:

Breeding apparently occurs throughout the year, although some = investigators=20 have indicated that there may be mating peaks in Kenya during = September=20 - November and March - April, and peaks in Zululand (South = Africa) during=20 October - November and April - July. These and other reports suggest = that=20 births tend to take place in the rainy season. (Nowak=20 1999) 

Birth Rate:

A single calf is born at intervals of 2.5 - 4 years (Intl. Rhino=20 Found. 2005). Inter-birth intervals vary between different = black=20 rhino populations, tending to increase in high density populations, or = under=20 poor conditions (Hillman-Smith=20 & Groves 1994). 

Data on fecundity = rates for=20 black rhino populations [for each pair of numbers, the first number = =3D=20 calves/female/year; the second number =3D calves/population/year] = (Milner-Gulland=20 1999): 

  • Addo (South=20 Africa): 0.46 calves/female/year (1977) =20
  • Amboseli (Kenya): = 0.25/0.068=20 (1972) =20
  • Corridor: 0.28/0.098 (1983) =20
  • Hluhluwe (South=20 Africa): 0.19/0.074 (1983) =20
  • Luangwa (Zambia): = 0.17/0.046=20 (1985).=20
  • Ngorongoro (Tanzania):=20 0.25/0.068 (1967), 0.24/0.107 (1981)=20
  • Olduvai (Tanzania):=20 0.26/0.068 (1967) =20
  • Tsavo (Kenya):=20 0.30 calves/female/year (1970) =20
  • Umfolozi (South=20 Africa): 0.33/0.099 (1983) 

Early Development:

A black rhino calf is mobile soon after birth and begins browsing=20 vegetation before it is 1 month old. It first drinks water after 4 - 5 = months.=20 (Kingdon=20 1997)  Weaning is = completed=20 after about 2 years (Nowak=20 1999).

The bond between a mother black rhino and her calf is strong, and = the calf=20 lies or feeds close to its mother (Hillman-Smith=20 & Groves 1994).

Dispersal:

A young black rhino usually is forced to leave its mother after 2 = or 3=20 years when the mother has another calf, or sometimes when she is = mated. The=20 young rhino may, however, later rejoin its mother for temporary = periods of=20 association, especially if it is a female. (Hillman-Smith=20 & Groves 1994)

Maximum Age:

30 - 35 years in the wild (Intl. Rhino=20 Found. 2005); 45 years and 10 months in captivity (Nowak=20 1999).

Diet:

The black rhino is a browser. It = prefers=20 leaves, twigs and branches from small acacia=92s and other palatable = woody=20 shrubs and small trees as well as palatable = herbs and legumes. = However,=20 because of high levels of secondary plant chemicals, much woody plant = browse = (especially many=20 evergreen species) in some areas is unpalatable = for=20 black rhinos and is avoided. Succulent = plants are=20 often selected in the dry season. Salt licks are visited regularly. = (Hillman-Smith=20 & Groves 1994, Kingdon = 1997, IUCN=20 2004) 

In feeding trials, adult food intake averaged 23.6 kg (52 lb) of = mixed browse/day. = (Hillman-Smith=20 & Groves 1994) 

The black rhino=92s semi-prehensile = upper=20 lip is used to twist twigs while feeding. The usual feeding height is = 0 - 1 m=20 (0 - 3.3'), though a black rhino can reach higher than 2 m (6.6'). = Small trees=20 are sometimes pushed down by walking over them to make high branches=20 accessible. Diameters of twigs bitten off are mainly 3 - 10 mm (0.1 - = 0.4"),=20 but they could be more than 30 mm (1.2"). This gives a high proportion = of=20 woody to green material in the black rhino=92s diet. (Hillman-Smith=20 & Groves 1994) 

When the weather is hot, the black rhino drinks water daily and = must be=20 within walking distance of water. In cooler temperatures it can go = without=20 drinking water for up to 5 days if its food is moist. In arid areas, = the black=20 rhino also can go without water for several days, obtaining moisture = from succulent = plants.=20 However, it is unable to survive extreme droughts. (Hillman-Smith=20 & Groves 1994, Kingdon=20 1997) 

Behavior:

Senses: The black rhino=92s eyesight is = poor. It=20 has been estimated that its effective eyesight extends 25 - 30 m (82 - = 98=91).=20 The black rhino=92s hearing is good. Its sense of smell is well = developed and is=20 probably the most important of the senses, although its use is limited = by wind=20 direction. Human scent by itself causes great alarm to a black rhino. = On the=20 other hand, if it detects no scent, a black rhino will show no = interest in a=20 motionless person or car unless it is closer than 20 - 30 m (66 - = 98=91).=20 (Hillman-Smith=20 & Groves 1994, Nowak = 1999)

Activity Patterns: Black rhinos are = more active=20 - feeding, drinking and walking - in early morning and late afternoon = to=20 evening. In the middle of the day, black rhinos are mostly inactive = (sleeping=20 or standing). The black rhinos are also usually active at night, often = feeding, drinking, and walking outside their core areas and in more = open=20 habitat than during the day. (Hillman-Smith=20 & Groves 1994)

Movement: Normal movement of the = black rhino is=20 at the rate of around 3 - 4 kph (1.9 - 2.5 mph), but in a charge it = can reach=20 a speed of 50 kph (31 mph) (Nowak=20 1999).

Attitude: Although its belligerence = has been=20 exaggerated, the black rhino is unpredictable and can be a dangerous = animal,=20 sometimes charging a disturbing sound or smell. It has tossed people = in the=20 air with the front horn and regularly charges vehicles and campfires. = If a=20 black rhino catches the scent of humans, it usually runs away, = sometimes for=20 quite a distance before stopping. (Nowak=20 1999)

Social Organization:

Groups: Black rhinos are predominantly = solitary,=20 the most commonly observed groups being lone males or adult females = with=20 young. Other groups of various ages and genders occur, but they = usually are=20 temporary. The largest temporary group reported in one study included = 13 black=20 rhinos. Females usually are found together with a calf and sometimes = an older=20 daughter. Females without young may temporarily join a neighboring = female.=20 Subadults frequently associate with other black rhinos. Only fully = adult males=20 become solitary, and even they may form temporary groups that move and = feed=20 together. (Hillman-Smith=20 & Groves 1994, Kingdon = 1997, Nowak = 1999)

Relations: Black rhinos that share a = part or=20 all or their range exhibit a familiarity with one another instead of = the=20 aggression that they exhibit to total strangers. Overt territorial= =20 behavior is very variable. Adult females have overlapping home = ranges.=20 Females in high-density areas are well acquainted with, and generally = tolerant=20 of, their neighbors (except in the presence of an estrous = female). Two=20 females usually approach each other cautiously, but with little = aggression. On=20 contact they may nudge one another with the sides of the head or horn, = then=20 usually walk away. On the other hand, the meeting of a male with a = female or=20 another male is more likely to be accompanied by aggression, with a=20 stiff-legged, short-step approach, snorting and occasionally head = sweeping or=20 horn pushing.  Aggression between males can be violent. However, = except=20 during conflicts over estrous = females,=20 usually the subordinate or the visitor to a territory = retreats.=20 Males in low-density areas meet less frequently and are more likely to = be=20 aggressive. (Hillman-Smith=20 & Groves 1994, Kingdon = 1997, Nowak 1999, = Intl. Rhino=20 Found. 2005)

Mating: An adult male and female, with = the=20 female=92s young if she has one, form temporary associations for = mating during=20 the female=92s estrus.=20 A premating bond develops between the bull and the cow, and the pair = remain=20 together during resting and feeding. They even sleep in contact with = each=20 other. Especially at mating, young are sometimes attacked by males. = Although=20 at times several bulls may court a female simultaneously without = apparent=20 antagonism, serious fights and frequent deaths result from conflicts = over estrous = females.=20 (Hillman-Smith=20 & Groves 1994, Nowak=20 1999)

Age and Gender Distribution:

One study found ratios of adult females to young in Ngorongoro (Tanzania) = of=20 1.0:0.72 and in Olduvai (Tanzania) = of=20 1.0:0.79 (Hillman-Smith=20 & Groves 1994).

The ratio of males to females varies among populations, but overall = it is=20 close to 1:1 when all age classes are combined (Hillman-Smith=20 & Groves 1994). 

Density and Range:

Density: The following densities of black rhinos have been = reported:=20

  • Hluhluwe (South=20 Africa): less than or equal to 1.7 rhinos/sq km (4.4 rhinos/sq = mi) in=20 the thickest habitat (Hillman-Smith=20 & Groves 1994)=20
  • Kenya: 314=20 black rhinos found in fenced areas at an overall density of about = 0.24=20 rhinos/sq km (0.62 rhinos/sq mi); 116 rhinos found in unfenced areas = at an=20 overall density of 0.06 rhinos/sq km (0.16 rhinos/sq mi) (Muruthi et = al.=20 2000) =20
  • Ngorongoro (Tanzania): = 0.3=20 rhinos/sq km (0.8 rhinos/sq mi) in mixed habitat (Hillman-Smith=20 & Groves 1994)=20
  • Ngorongoro (Tanzania): = As many=20 as 23 individuals, including all ages and both sexes, have been = known to=20 reside in an area of less than 3 sq km (1.2 sq mi), 17 of them = permanently.=20 (Nowak=20 1999)=20
  • Olduvai (Tanzania): = 0.2=20 rhinos/sq km (0.5 rhinos/sq mi) (Hillman-Smith=20 & Groves 1994)=20
  • Serengeti (Tanzania): = from=20 0.02 - 0.05 rhinos/sq km (0.05 - 0.13 rhinos/sq mi) in the more open = Serengeti (Hillman-Smith=20 & Groves 1994)=20
  • Tsavo (Kenya):=20 local densities varying from 0.03 - 1.3 rhinos/sq km (0.08 - 3.4 = rhinos/sq=20 mi), depending on habitat (Hillman-Smith=20 & Groves 1994)

Home = range:=20 The following home ranges of black rhinos have  been reported:=20

  • Mara (Kenya):=20 5.6 - 22.7 sq km (2.2 - 8.7 sq mi) (Hillman-Smith=20 & Groves 1994)=20
  • Namib Desert (Namibia): = males -=20 730 =B1 210 sq km (1900 =B1 540 sq mi); females - 540 =B1 160 sq km = (1400 =B1 420 sq=20 mi). (Berger=20 1997).=20
  • Ngorongoro (Tanzania) = (average=20 ranges): adult males - 15.6 sq km (6.0 sq mi), adult females - 14.9 = sq km=20 (5.7 sq mi) (overall variation in ranges for adult males and adult = females:=20 2.6 - 44.0 sq km (1.0 - 16.9 sq mi)), immature males - 35.9 sq km = (13.8 sq=20 mi), and immature females - 27.4 sq km (10.5 sq mi) (Hillman-Smith=20 & Groves 1994)=20
  • Olduvai (Tanzania) = (average=20 ranges): males - 21.8 sq km (8.4 sq mi); females: 35.1 sq km (13.5 = sq mi)=20 (overall variation in ranges for adult males and adult females: (3.6 = - 90.0=20 sq km (1.4 - 34.6 sq mi)) (Hillman-Smith=20 & Groves 1994)=20
  • Serengeti (Tanzania): = 43 -=20 133 sq km (16.5 - 51.2 sq mi) (Hillman-Smith=20 & Groves 1994)

References

Abigail = Smigel, Ansell=20 1969, Berger=20 1997, Berger &=20 Cunningham 1998, Brooks = & Emslie=20 1997, Burton &=20 Pearson 1987, Cumming et al. = 1990,=20 Curry-Lindahl = 1972, Czech Web = Site, Emslie 2002, = Emslie 2004, = Emslie = & Brooks=20 1999, Focus=20 1995, Focus=20 1997, Focus=20 1998, Focus=20 2000b, Focus=20 2004d, Hillman = &=20 Martin 1979, Hillman-Smith=20 & Groves 1994, Intl. = Rhino=20 Found. 2002, Intl. = Rhino=20 Found. 2004, Intl. = Rhino=20 Found. 2005, IRF=20 1996, IUCN = 1966, IUCN 1994, IUCN 1996, IUCN 2000, IUCN=20 2003a, IUCN=20 2004, Kerr = &=20 Fothergill 1971, Kingdon = 1997, Largen = & Yalden=20 1987, Macdonald=20 1984, Milner-Gulland=20 1999, Morgan-Davies=20 2001, Muruthi et=20 al. 2000, Nowak=20 1999, Olson = &=20 Dinerstein 1998, Olson = &=20 Dinerstein 1999, Oryx=20 1965a, Oryx=20 1978d, Oryx=20 1980d, Oryx=20 1982, Oryx = 1988c, Oryx=20 1990b, Oryx = 1991d, Oryx=20 1992, Oryx=20 1994b, Oryx=20 1995j, Rachlow = &=20 Berger 1998, Roth=20 1967, Silva=20 & Downing 1994, Univ. Alaska = Mus.,=20 Varisco = 1989

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By: Paul Massicot; Last modified: March 11, 2006; =A9 = 1999 - 2006=20 Animal Info