Numerous psychological studies focus on the institution of marriage. It is of great interest to psychologists to understand what attributes to marital satisfaction and marital quality. It is common sense to infer that a marriage can be neither of high

This is an example of a very good Section I draft. This is the UNEDITED version, without a reference page and without using headings (which it needs). Also, the paper is longer than it needed to be for the first draft assignment. But other than that it is a good model. Used with permission of the writer.
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The Association between Depession and Marriage: Theoretical Foundations
Depression is an extremely pervasive problem in society that is operationalized on a broad continuum. The spectrum ranges from feelings of sadness or dejection at one end to an abnormal clinical state at the other. Almost everyone suffers from some form of depression or another during their lifetime. This disorder displays itself in all races, social classes and ethnic groups. It is nearly twice as common among women as it is among men (Beach, Sandeen & O’Leary, 1990). In the Encyclopedia of Mental Health depression is defined as "a mood or affective disorder characterized by sadness, dysphoria, hopelessness, despair, personal devaluation and helplessness" (p. 132).
Depression in marriage is worth studying because it is implicated to affect the status of marital satisfaction. There are many different theories proposed by experts to explain this relationship. According to Karney and Bradbury (1995) a theory should "encompass a full range of possible predictors of marital outcomes and should provide links between different levels of analysis, specify mechanisms of change within marriage and account for variability in marital outcomes between couples and within couples over time" (p. 4). They have introduced (for example) the vulnerability-stress adaptation model of marriage. This model suggests that enduring vulnerabilities, adaptive processes and stressful events all influence one another. This interaction has a reciprocating effect on marital quality which in turn affects marital stability. The role that depression plays in this model is that of an enduring vulnerability. Different schools of thought, however, interpret this relationship differently. These schools of thought have different points of focus such as individualistic (psychological models) in which the focus is on something within the individual. (Lecture 4/7/98). According to this view, depression is an enduring vulnerability of the individual produced by their unique life experiences. A dyadic focus (interpersonal models), which centers on identifying interactions that account for variance in marital quality and/or stability has also produced models of depression (lecture 4/9/98). In this conception depression is an enduring vulnerability that is produced by interaction and influences the interactions between a couple (creating a positive feedback loop). There are also models of depression resulting from the systematic approach . These models have branched off from interpersonal models to incorporate more than just the spouses. Systems models include both micro and macro-systems. They focus on a set of consistently interacting, mutually interdependent elements whose relationships are intensely patterned in a way so that change in one element affects the condition of all others (lecture 4/13/98). In this view depression is attributed to the combined effects of the persons’ micro and macro systems.
Psychological models stemming from an individualistic focus are characterized by six themes: 1) cognitive distortions and negative self-schemata 2) negative attributions 3) reinforcement 4) script disruption and self-focus 5) problem solving and coping (Beach, Sandeen & O’Leary, 1990). Beck (1967, 1972, 1976), as cited by Beach, Sandeen & O’Leary (1990) hypothesizes that "cognitive distortions cause many if not most of a person’s depressed states" (p. 29). His theory has two major premises, one is that "depressed person’s operate with a negative cognitive bias" (p. 30). These cognitive biases result from negative cognitive distortions. The other premise of his theory is that they "have negative schemata regarding themselves. These schemata serve as a means of processing and organizing information. Depression is said to occur as result of activation of depressive schemata" (p.30). According to Beck’s model, depression is hypothesized to occur under two conditions, one being the vulnerability resulting from depressive schemata exist, and the other being that specific stresses are present. Thus in this model depression is the product of an individuals’ negative cognitions.
One model that exemplifies the negative attributions theme of psychological models coming out of an individualistic focus is the attributional model of depression and marital distress (Horneffer & Fincham, 1996). This model deals with how attributional processes affect marital satisfaction and depression. Prior research in this area indicates that there are "two possible models that may be appropriate in predicting the outcomes of depression and marital distress: (a) a model in which only depressogenic (causal attributions or explanations) attributions account for depression and marital distress (reduced model) and (b) a model in which both depressogenic and distress-maintaining attributions are included (full model)" (Horneffer & Fincham, 1996, p.679). According to this attributional model depression is a potential mediating variable between attributions and marital distress. Depression can be the product of peoples' attributions to the extent to which they attribute negative outcomes or failure experience to internal, stable, or unchanging and global characteristics of influence across a variety of domains. Depression can also be distress-maintaining itself, sustaining and perpetuating the state depression and/or marital dissatisfaction. The study by Horneffer and Fincham (1996) concluded that the full model, which incorporates the effects of both depressogenic attributions and distress-maintaining attributions on depression and marital satisfaction, better fit the data collected. Thus, according to the results of this study, both types of attributions must be included in a model to fully understand the relationship between depression and marital distress. Depression plays a double role as both the product and cause of attributions leading to marital distress.
The third theme that runs through psychological models is reinforcement. Reinforcement is a construct typical of behaviorism. It focuses on the individual specifying that the individuals' behaviors, skills etc. provide reinforcement (or lack thereof). A representative model of this school of thought is posited by Lewinsohn & Arconad (1981, as cited in Beach, Sandeen & O’Leary, 1990). His "reinforcement model of depression has three foci: 1) availability of few positive reinforcers and a surplus of punishers, 2) skill deficiencies that make it difficult for an individual to obtain positive reinforcers or to cope with negative events, and 3) individual susceptibility to negative events and a reduced impact of positive events" (p.34).
Script disruption and self-focus is another theme in psychological models. It includes both cognitive factors and scripted behaviors. Self-focus refers to an evaluation of the self. It is hypothesized that if one falls short in an evaluation (done either by themselves or by someone else) it results in negative affect and could lead to depression. Script disruption refers to the interference of some well-leaned pattern of social behavior. One recent study investigated the effect of self-concept disconfirmation on marital partners’ psychological well-being and their assessment of marital happiness (Schafer, Wickrama & Keith, 1996). They studied the effects of a person's self-concept being disconfirmed by themselves or by their partners. Self-concept disconfirmation by their partners led to an eleviation of feelings of self-efficacy that led to psychological distress. In this study, depression is used as a measure of psychological distress. This study found that for both partners there was a significant negative association between self-efficacy and depression, and between depression and marital happiness. Also, for spouses there is a significant positive relationship between self-efficacy and marital happiness. This means that a healthy, stable self-concept leads to feelings of self-efficacy that contributes to marital happiness.
Self-control is another theme central to psychological models. The individual focus is represented in the self-control model of behavior presented by Kanfer (1970, as cited in Beach, Sandeen & O’Leary, 1990). The individual is responsible for modifying their own behavior to elicit the desired outcomes via a feedback sequence that engages self-monitoring, self-evaluation and self-reinforcement. These behaviors can be problematic in depression as exemplified in the self-concept disconfirmation model.
Problem solving and coping is the last theme included in the psychological models. It suggests that depression can be understood as a failure to cope with ongoing life problems or stressors. Adequate coping skills can help to moderate the effects of these problems. A social problem-solving model of depression has been proposed be Nezu, Nezu & Perri (1989, as cited in Beach, Sandeen & O’Leary, 1990) which posits five components for successful problem-solving coping : 1) problem orientation 2) problem definition 3) generation of alternatives 4) decision making 5) solution implementation and verification.
These five themes are general to all psychological models of depression that are products of the individual focus. The models chosen to exemplify each theme are considered to be most representative of the particular idea. These models do, however, overlap. Each has its’ own benefits and drawbacks. I think that, as a group, these models provide an ample list of possible predictors of marital outcome and specify numerous mechanisms of change. They do not however, in my opinion, do an adequate job of accounting for variability in marital outcomes.
There are also interpersonal models of depression which are products of the dyadic focus. Whereas the psychological models focused mainly on spouses' personalities, the interactional models focus on the actions and overt behaviors of spouses. According to Dr. Weiss there are three main models that represent the dyadic focus : 1) social exchange models which decrease the role of personality variables, highlight costs, benefits and reciprocity, contrast personal and communal focus and identify under what conditions patterns of behavior persist 2) performance based models and 3) the social learning perspective (Lecture 4/9/98).
The role that depression takes on varies across these three models. In a social exchange model depression could be identified as a negative attribute (therefore a cost). A partner may react to their spouses depressed behavior in the same manner forming a pattern. This pattern could become a positive feedback loop sustaining the pattern of behavior.
The aforementioned vulnerability-stress-adaptation model could be considered a performance based model because it incorporates accomplishments (e.g., problem solving) and content areas (e.g., appetitive-enduring positive characteristics) which can be applied during different stages of the family life cycle (Lecture 4/9/98). According to this model "marital quality is a function of enduring vulnerabilities, which are defined as stable characteristics that spouses bring to their marriage ; stressful events, including normative and nonnormative events, transitions, and circumstances that spouses encounter ; and adaptive processes. The model holds that enduring vulnerabilities and stressful events exert their effect on marriage through adaptive processes. Adaptive processes are thought to affect marital quality, which in turn predicts marital stability" (Cohan & Bradbury, 1997, p. 114). This study examined the effects of negative life evens and marital communication on change in depressive symptoms and marital communication. They found that negative life events led to a decrease in problem-solving behavior, which in turn led to increases in depression or decreases in marital adjustment.
Social learning conceptions also play a role in interactional models. They focus on behavioral interactions between partners. The coercion model is an example of a social learning conception. Coercion is a behavior (negative or positive) that is used to shape or change (un)desirable behavior. Applied to depression-if one partner is depressed and engages in aversive behavior, such as whining, the other may engage in consoling behaviors or stop making critical comments. This interaction may reduce the critcalness of one partner while reinforcing the depressive symptomology of the other by rewarding it (Beach et al., 1990). There is a lack of support for this model that is in part due to lack of testing.
Specific models, such as performance based models, within the dyadic realm are better at accounting for variability in marital outcomes between couples and within couples over time than the psychological models are. However, while performance based models do identify some specific mechanisms of change and predictors of marital outcomes, dyadic models are not as inclusive as psychological models are for these variables. This is in part due to the lack of studies. Psychological models started receiving attention in the 1970s while dyadic models did not start receiving attention until the late 1980s (Beach et al., 1990).
Systems models also illustrate the role of depression in marriage. Systems include anything that touches a person’s life such as their family, peers, coworkers-workers, society etc. In these models, unlike psychological and dyadic models, the causality is not linear. It is circular. One example of a system where depression has an effect is the family. "A family is a rule-governed system. The interaction of family members typically follows organized, established patterns, enabling each person to learn what is permitted or expected of him or her as well as others in family transactions. Usually unstated, such rules characterize, regulate, and help stabilize how-and how well-families function as a unit" (Goldenberg & Goldenberg, chapter three). Coyne (as cited in Beach et al., 1990), one of the leading researchers in this field, views the role that depression plays in a systems model as similar to its’ role in the coercive model. He contends that the depressed person’s behavior is sustained or increased partly by their social environment. He suggests that a sympathetic spouse may initially react with concern about the person’s feelings (creating a positive feedback loop) in an effort to return the relationship to its’ homeostatic balance. It is thought, however, that as this pattern of interaction continues, the depressed person "turns off" others, and is eventually seen as a complainer. In their search for equilibrium the consoling partner has unwittingly amplified the deviation from homeostasis, thereby decreasing marital satisfaction. In extreme cases, the depressed individuals are avoided all together by others. This view does not offer any predictors or mechanisms of change but it does specify an evolution of behavior that can account for some of the variability in marital outcomes.
All of the models discussed offer plausible explanations of the role that depression plays in affecting ultimate marital satisfaction. None of them, however, seem to explain the full spectrum of possible predictors or marital outcomes, specify mechanisms of change within marriage and account for variablity in marital outcomes between couples and within couples over time at the same time. An integration of some of these already supported models could result in such an end result.

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