The Problem:

Did the Romans have a conscious policy of urbanization? Consider these two passages. Agricola was the Roman governor of Britain in the early 90s.

Agricola gave private encouragement and public aid to the building of temples, courts of justice and dwelling-houses, praising the energetic, and reproving the indolent. Thus an honorable rivalry took the place of compulsion. He likewise provided a liberal education for the sons of the chiefs, and showed such a preference for the natural powers of the Britons over the industry of the Gauls that they who lately disdained the tongue of Rome now coveted its eloquence. Hence, too, a liking sprang up for our style of dress, and the “toga” became fashionable.

The Romans (as Tacitus indicates here) had a strong sense of why their empire succeeded. In a speech attributed to a Roman general, Cerialis argues that Trier (on the Mosel River and on the present German / Belgian border) would be making a mistake to revolt from Rome...

Gaul always had its petty kingdoms and intestine wars, till you submitted to Rome's authority. We, though so often provoked, have used the right of conquest to burden you only with the cost of maintaining peace. For the tranquility of nations cannot be preserved without armies; armies cannot exist without pay; pay cannot be furnished without taxes; all else is common between us. You often command our legions. You govern these and other provinces. There is no privilege, no exclusion…Should the Romans be driven out (may the gods forbid!) what can result but wars between yourselves and other nations?

Recall the other passages given in the last lecture on the role of the governor in Spain.

Was Tacitus right, and if so, how would you describe the policy / policies of the Romans?

1. ROMANIZATION Of interest may be the excavations at Conimbriga, Portugal, or of the Roman town of Split in Croatia), and underwater archaeology. [L'epave]
2. Introduction/Problem: How to account for the change in the popularity and image of Rome as an empire in the period 100 B.C. -- A.D. 150? Recall that the actions of Roman magistrates had often been extortionate in the Late Republic.
   1. How to account for the willingness of subjects to be absorbed into the Roman state and, from the Roman perspective, to absorb without losing identity and uniquely Roman characteristics. Bear in mind that this would happen was by no means self evident in AD 1. Note RC II §30 (pp. 23-6): §90; also RC I §147.
   2. City-state, world-state (urbs et orbis) and the creation of a supra-national loyalty.  Such a system has had no parallel in the Mediterranean.
3. General Considerations.... how to explain the dramatic increase in citizen numbers [see animation above].
   1. Was there emigration of Italians from Italy: Yes, but the overall numbers were not large. "trade FOLLOWS the flag"? To some degree, but not decisive.
      1. role of army. Roman army on the frontier; the impact on Romanization was profound in the border areas [Rhine, Danuabe], and the numbers were in any case not high for soldiers appear to have retired to communities that were already thoroughly Romanized.
      2. Roman/Italian investment in trade, mines, land, flocks, etc. Hard to estimate the numbers here.
      3. In general, there is no reason to believe that Romans replaced an indigenous population, rather....
   2. Romans had little sense of cultural superiority and had a long history of extending citizenship; admittedly part of a self-reinforcing national myth. RC II §§ 15-16. Very hard to follow the process in detail.

      But note the changes in a family cult and burial center where we can trace dedications first to Capriociegus, then to Mars-Capriociegus and then to Mars alone; or family burials in which the first generation has a Keltic name, the son begins to Romanize but also mentions that he is the son of a Kelt (we can see this in the name), and the third generation the name is thoroughly Roman. It is undeniable then that we are dealing with a cultural transformation of indigenous people

   3. The general effects of peace and stability?
   4. The evident reality is that subjects become citizens. The prestige of power; the power of prestige. In what follows, we need to explore this problem in more detail.
   1. urbanization = civilization = Romanization. The transformation of Europe from a village to an urban structure.
   2. the Romans actively encouraged and rewarded imitation; and did so for very pragmatic reasons, namely it was easier to govern..Also, RC II pp278-80.
   3. The benefits of Roman rule, see below.
4. To understand what follows, and §V is critical for the argument, let us consider two case studies: Spain (more properly Iberian peninsula) and Judaea
1. Spain and the amenities of Romanization.
   1. It took the Romans two centuries of continuous warfare to conquer, subjugate and pacify.
   2. Augustus divides into three provinces.,
   3. In 74, Vespasian extends "Latin right" (partial citizenship) to all communities in Iberian. Municipal charters on Roman model. Configuration of a Roman town in Spain; note the number of theaters in Spain. Roman theater at Merida.
   4. New research indicates that Romanization was essentially on political and urban level; Keltic tradition in religion and social institutions remained strong; Kelts were eclectic. Romans remained tolerant of cultural diversity so long as it did not threaten the peace. Cf. a sacrificial scene.
2. Romanization of Gaul.
3. Judaea: an extreme case, but indicates range. Evidence: Josephus, Roman
   1. By 100 B.C., Judaea is a client-state. About as many Jews living outside Judaea as in it. The Jewish Diaspora
   2. Relations to Rome
      1. Some Jews held full Roman citizenship.
      2. Roman troops stations outside Judaea, at Caesarea, under a procurator serving the governor of Syria.
      3. Issues: The Romans accepted Judaism as it was, namely as an ancient and national cult; they generally stayed outside of internal conflicts and respected religious feelings. Conflicts around
         1. imposition of imperial cult
         2. taxation (to Yahweh or to Caesar?)
         3. internal dissension (overpopulation, the Sicarii and others)
         4. Roman maladministration.
5. Our Problem --may now be re-stated: What factors encouraged subjects to become Roman?
1. PEACE = pax Romana: Army stationed on the frontier to defend (see above); note also that the internal peace is secured by a benevolent dictator RC §7 (esp 23-26)
2. HIGHER STANDARDS associated with URBAN culture (evidence below)
3. INCLUSION in every area, political, cultural, etc., and TOLERANCE of diversity (supporting material throughout this lecture, esp the quotations at the beginning and item III B and in IV A 4 above. 
4. Local (limited) AUTONOMY RC II 63-5
5. LAW: equitable treatment of subjects; these were very real benefactions.  RC II pp330-1, but note also pp. 335-7 for more a more negative assessment of the Roman Empire. Subject of a lecture in two weeks.
6. More specifically and by region...
1. In the west, the absorption of roman civil institutions and the Latin language produced a society of Romans. This process was fostered by
   1. the general cultural "backwardness" of the west,
   2. by a clear program of advancement in constitutional privilege. There were concrete rewards for Romanizing, but generally tolerance of cultural diversity at ALL levels.
   3. In the east, ruler cult (RC § 162) was the traditional means of expressing loyalty:
      1. Connected with provincial assemblies, the purpose of meeting was to honor emperor.
      2. Genuine feeling --one could be grateful, play on old urban rivalries in allocation of honors; given to the most loyal, most Roman community
   4. Important to realize that Romanization proceeded from the elite down and from town to countryside. To understand Romanization then one must understand that the leading provincials were first absorbed and given a position among the elite. Origins of emperors (cf. above the quotation from Tacitus); and of senators in the 2nd Cent.

Other supporting :

1. Public Culture: On the level of urbanization:a map of the sites; of Timgad; of Arles; of Merida, of Trier
   1. Theaters: A common feature of urban culture and civic identity: A sampling of theaters. of Marcellus; aerial of Ostia; Ostia detail; Vaisson; pompeii; trier; merida; arles; ephesus & model; palmyra loges and stage; petra; jerash
   2. and of amphitheaters: Coliseum (model; coin; verona; el djem; arles)
   3. and in one region: Iberian peninsula
2. Example of public sanitation (as a model for incentives)
   • The Aqueducts of the city of Rome: 
     • model; Aqua Claudia, in Rome;another model;
     • Provinces: Segovia and alternate view; Campania; Caesarea; diagram of water castle and structure; and interior; storage chamber; distribution to public fountain. water pipes; Exit point. Pont du Gard; its course. Gericault.
   • Baths. Calidarium; frigidarium;
     • interior at Rome; baths at Rome and a model.
     • At Pompeii; Trier
   • Public latrines: model; top down.
     • at Ostia; another view and in Africa. latrine in provincial city;
     • a brave new world...at home; and those involved and their wagon. Chamber pots: one, two, three.
     • more recently, and a new perspective.
   • Cloaca
     • At Rome the original. Sewar at Cologne.
   • Construction inscription, boat trip,
   • On the consequences of a lack of public sanitation standards, see the plumber's page; note also village life.
   • water wheel; and the mills at Barbigal
3. Urban amenities (beyond the amphitheaters, theaters and baths described above): a reminder of what we covered earlier. comfortable private life:atrium, bedroom, toilette, apt complex; Pompeii from the air; Ostia forum
4. City charters:
5. Population density in the Roman Empire

Significance of the data? Recall the basic question: why did people adopt Roman civic values? How do you characterize Roman policy?

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