Ming8
Since the Song
Dynasty religious and philosophical thinking in
Daoism, and Buddhism were integrated into a system of metaphysical ideas and practical ethics that only in the Ming Dynasty became widely acknowledged.
The synthesis of the three teachings was the answer to the search for practical methods of spiritual cultivation.
Confucianism
Neo-Confucian philosophers, the most important of whom was Zhu Xi (1130-1200), created a canon of classical literature that should serve as the shared basis of all learned members of society. Zhu Xi therefore edited the Four Books [The Great Learning, The Doctrine of the Mean, The Analects of Confucius, Mengzi] which had to be studied and learned by all examination candidates. This classical canon would dominate the contents of the official examinations until they were abolished in 1906.
Yet Confucian officials did not form a homogenous group in the Late Imperial period.
In the Ming the literati scene largely consisted of two groups of [former] officials:
1. The Conservatives
Deeply influenced
by Zhu Xi and his contemporaries this group held the values of Confucian ideology
and tradition in highest esteem. They cultivated a habit of support and disapproval
for political decisions by the emperor. In case of abuse of power etc. by
the eunuchs, by other officials, or even by the emperor himself, they send
letters of protest and memoranda of correction to the court, sometimes at
the risk of their lives. Many of them belonged to the learned circles associated
with academies. The most important academy of the time was the
One example
shows the rigidity of the officials “acting with conviction”: When Censor
Yang Lian accused the powerful eunuch Wei
Zhongxian of 24 crimes, the most important of which
was that Wei had educated the emperor in a way that
the eunuchs participated in everyday politics by actually replacing the eighteen
year old emperor, Yang Lian and all those who supported
the accusation against Wei were executed. Their
friends and colleagues continued their critique because they were convinced that the educated had the social
responsibility to be useful to society. Among this group we find many manuals
of practical knowledge by authors like the philologist Gu Yanwu
(1613-1682) or the Ming prince Zhu Caiyu (1536-1611)
who was interested in mathematics and musicology. He wrote “Essence of Music” (between 1584 and 1596)
which explains the equally tempered scale (described
in
In general intellectual
life of the urban middle class showed a re-awakening of philosophy in the
16th century. Individualism and anarchism were the favored counter
positions to the conservative minds. A tendency towards a “disinterested wisdom”
became evident. Disgusted with court politics, many scholars did no longer
pursue an administrative career.
2. The Liberals
The ‘liberals’ were headed by the philosopher Wang Yangming (= Wang Shouren; 1472-1528) who considered the reading and interpreting of texts as it was practiced in the traditional education system as less important than personal conduct in office and moral reform in society. His philosophy has therefore been labeled as ‘anti-intellectualist’. Li = the principle of order in society and within the universe had to be interiorized. Then there would be no separation between knowledge and action. Wang followed the philosopher Mengzi when stating that man possessed an innate moral knowledge because at birth man was of good nature before his mind is contaminated by egoistic ideas and desires.
Wang Yangming
and his disciple Wang Gen (1483-1541) participated in the ‘fashion’
of academic discussions.
More eccentric than Wang Yangming was Li Zhi (1527-1602) who attacked traditional morality. His individualistic thoughts show sympathy for Buddhism and vernacular literature and may be summarized as ‘intuitive philosophy’ that was based on meditation practice. (see “On the Mind of a Child”; the handout includes further texts by libera contemporaries of Li Zhi). Li Zhi was eccentric, especially in his defense of minorities, women, and the lower classes.
For poems by a liberal see the excerpts from the translation of Yuan Mei's poems "I don't bow for Buddhas" (on e-reserve).
Daoism
While religious Daoism was dominated by mystical teachings preoccupied with the search for immortality, philosophical Daoism centered around finding the Way and practicing Wuwei, ‘non-acting’, or acting in harmony with nature without willfully applying force to achieve a goal. Religious Daoism in the Ming was dominant in the Zhengyi Dao (Way of Right Unity)-sect. The sects’ practices were based on the teachings of the Han Daoist Zhang Daoling and used amulets and talisman writings. It had been melted together with the School of the Magic Jewel (Lingbao pai) whose priests were prominent for practicing exorcist rituals.
Philosophical Daoism concentrated on the writings of Laozi and Zhuangzi and the voluminous interpretations of their writings by later philosophers. The most important school of followers were the Quanzhen (Way of Realization of Truth) monks who lived in strict celibacy (Zhengyi priests could marry) and practiced meditation. The sect had been founded in the Song Dynasty by Wang Chunyang (1112-1170). They did not use talismans or alchemy but were influenced by Chan (=Zen) Buddhism
Buddhism
1. Chan Buddhism, in which self-realization through one’s own efforts was stressed, became increasingly influential in the Ming, not only as a school of Buddhism but in its pervasive acceptance into Daoism and Confucianism.
Chan Buddhism had first become prominent in the 8th century. Instead of a long ascetic training emphasis was laid on a high level of concentration through meditation to attain the “extremity of being”, sudden illumination experienced in meditation. Chan was iconoclastic and not tied to dogmas, scriptures, rites, or philosophical systems.
Ming syncretism supported an amalgamation of Chan with
2.
3. Though introspection and withdrawal were characteristics of Buddhist clerical life during the sinicization dominant in the Ming becoming a Buddhist did no longer necessarily mean to have to renounce the family. [Ordination was officially controlled. Since the Tang to leave the household required the permission of the parents and grandparents (orphans needed only the permission of uncles and elder brothers) and an age of 15. Women had to be older than 13 and able to recite 70 pages of scripture by heart or read 500 pages of scripture].
Lay Buddhist associations flourished while, the monastic orders suffered from secularization and monastic reforms were conducted.
4. Vinaya Buddhism: Buddhism as followed by monks and nuns in the rules for ordination and monastic rules.
5. Tiantai (School of the
6. Esoteric Buddhism (Tantrism; zhenyan), also called Lamaism, is the Tibetan interpretation of Mahayana Buddhism which aims at illumination in order to compassionately assist others in obtaining illumination and Vajrayana teachings which rely on magic rituals in communicating with the deities. Tibetan Buddhism had been the favored religion of the Mongol rulers and was again to become the most important religion of the ruling elite in the Qing.
The most important Buddhist teacher of the Ming who propagated the syncretistic 'Three become One'- teaching was Zhuhong (1535-1615) who founded his own monastery. In his teachings he combined elements of Zen (practice of meditation) and Pure Land (recitation of Buddha's name)-Buddhism. He founded a strong lay Buddhist movement and tried to influence the reforms of monastic Buddhism by restricting excessive imitations of Confucian literati lifestyle of Buddhist monks. He wrote monastic rules for his community as well as for lay followers of Buddhism. In addition he wrote a manual for a ledger of merit and demerit points. For examples please read the excerpts on e-reserve.