The History of the SAT
The following is a reproduction of the table of contents of The Scholastic Aptitude Test: Its Development and Introduction, 1900-1948" (©1988) by Dr. David R. Hubin.
The material is presented without revision as it was submitted as an American History Ph.D. dissertation in 1988 to the University of Oregon. Since 1988 the dissertation has been available to the public in the Carl Campbell Brigham Library at Educational Testing Service, the University of Oregon Library (and interlibrary loan) and University of Michigan Microfilms.
Dr. Hubin has presented portions of this research in sessions at the College Board, including the National Assembly (New York, October, 1996) where it was discussed as part of panel on "The History of the SAT: The Past as Prologue" that included Nicholas Lemann, author of The Big Test, The Secret History of the American Meritocracy, 1999; Robert Laird, Director of Undergraduate Admissions at the University of California and Fred Hargadan, Dean of Admissions at Princeton University.
Abstract (downloadable as a PDF File)
Table of Contents (downloadable as a PDF File)
Each chapter and section is available to download as a PDF file by clicking on its chapter heading.
.
I. Introduction (click for pdf file)
The Problem of Selection..............................................................................6
The History of the SAT: A History Largely Untold.......................................8
The Critics of Testing in General.................................................................13
Criticisms of the SAT Specifically...............................................................15
Present Controversies with Historical Antecedents...................................17
Controversy: Predictive Validity..................................................................17
Controversy: Overuse and Misuse of the Test..........................................20
Controversy: Coachability and Score Changes.........................................21
Controversy: National Score Declines ......................................................23
This Researcher's Perspective...................................................................24
Terminology in the History of the SAT........................................................27
Conclusion....................................................................................................28
II.
Early Steps toward formal testing
for college admissions (click for pdf file)...............................30
Introduction..................................................................................................30
Examinations in Early Colleges..................................................................32
Oral Admissions Examinations...................................................................33
A University Model Emerges......................................................................35
The American Public High School Emerges.............................................35
The Certificate System...............................................................................37
Written Admissions Examinations...............................................................41
Institutional Essay Examinations: Criticisms and Problems.....................44
The Formation of the College Board .........................................................46
College Board Exams Vs. Secondary School Certification.......................51
The College Board Essay Exams................................................................53
The Nature of the College Board Questions...............................................54
The Introduction of a "New Plan" of Essay Exam: A Reform....................55
Conclusion.....................................................................................................66
III. A New Tool To assess aptitude--psychologists
create the Intelligence test (click for pdf file) .................69
Introduction....................................................................................................69
The Significance of a "Quantified Society".................................................72
Testing and the Professionalization of Psychology....................................73
The Early Heritage of Intelligence Tests.....................................................74
New Instruments with No Theoretical Underpinning...................................81
Intelligence Testing in World War I.............................................................82
Intelligence: Measured But Not Defined.....................................................86
Internal Professional Debate.......................................................................87
The Public Debate.......................................................................................92
Intelligence and Heredity.............................................................................95
Intelligence and Race..................................................................................99
Brigham's Study: Its Impact on Social Policy..........................................101
The Controversy Over Implications for Democracy................................109
The Possible Uses of the New Intelligence Tests..................................113
Conclusion..................................................................................................115
IV.
Testing the tests--intelligence tests go
to college
(click
for pdf file)................................................................................................117
Introduction..................................................................................................117
Testing the Tests: Early Applications of the Intelligence Tests...............119
Intelligence Tests for Disciplinary Action...................................................123
Intelligence Tests for Advising...................................................................125
Intelligence Tests for Sectioning of Classes............................................127
Intelligence Tests for Comparisons of Institutions...................................129
Intelligence Tests to Compare Departments............................................131
Intelligence Tests for Admissions.............................................................132
The First Step: Intelligence Tests for Admitting Veterans.......................134
Intelligence Tests for Admission: Beyond Veterans................................135
The Benefits of Intelligence Tests in Admissions....................................144
Criticisms of the Innovation........................................................................146
The Major Tests Used Prior to the SAT....................................................150
The Alpha....................................................................................................151
The Institutional Examinations...................................................................152
The Thorndike Intelligence Test...............................................................154
Intelligence Tests and Statistical Correlations.........................................156
Correlations With Academic Success......................................................159
Correlations With Faculty Perceptions of Ability......................................160
Correlations With Student Self-Perceptions............................................163
Conclusion..................................................................................................164
V. THE COLLEGE BOARD CREATES ITS OWN
INTELLIGENCE TEST--THE SAT (click for pdf file) .........167
Introduction.................................................................................................167
The 1920 Commission..............................................................................168
Mounting Criticism of Existing Examinations............................................170
The 'New Type' Multiple Choice Content
Examinations..............................................................................................172Continuing Work on Psychological Examinations....................................174
Potential Competition from the American Council on Education............175
The 1924 Commission: The Board Responds
to Competition............................................................................................177The Committee of Experts........................................................................181
Brigham and The Technical Committee of Experts................................188
Brigham: His Background.........................................................................189
Brigham Within the Profession.................................................................192
Brigham Renames the "Psychological Examination"..............................196
Conclusion
VI:
CONFIGURING AND ADMINISTERING THE
FIRST SAT
(click
for pdf file)....................................................................200
Introduction..................................................................................................200
The Novelty of the Examination..................................................................200
The SAT as a Reflection of its Ancestry....................................................206
The Verbal Section......................................................................................208
Mathematics: On, Off, Then On the SAT..................................................214
The Experimental Section: An SAT Innovation........................................218
The Persistent Question of Speed and Power.........................................224
Test Security...............................................................................................229
The Scoring Processes and Scales.........................................................231
Member Institutions React to the SAT.....................................................234
Press Reaction to the SAT.......................................................................237
Conclusion.................................................................................................238
VII.
The Conflict: Wide Use or Wise Use of Testing
(click for pdf file).....................................................
............240
Introduction...............................................................................................240
Psychology and Testing in the 1930s.....................................................241
Brigham as Associate Secretary.............................................................242
The Gatekeeper as Usher.......................................................................244
Brigham's Study of Error.........................................................................246
The Validating Examinations...................................................................251
The Pennsylvania Study: Expanding Standardized Testing................254
The PEA and Testing..............................................................................257
1934 Council on "Problems and Plans".................................................259
Conant's Scholarship Tests....................................................................261Founding the GRE--Cloning the SAT.....................................................265
The Aborted Attempt to Found ETS......................................................275
Conclusion...............................................................................................282
XIII. Conclusion: World War II, Incorporation,
and the Final Ossification(click for pdf file)................284
Introduction..............................................................................................284
1941: A Pivotal Year for the SAT..........................................................286
Equating the Test....................................................................................287
The Demise of the Essay.......................................................................290
The Introduction of Machine Scoring.....................................................294
Manpower Shortage: The Rationale for the Essay's Demise.............295
Testing for the Military.............................................................................297
SAT During the War................................................................................299
The Postwar Explosion of Testing.........................................................300
The G.I. Bill and American Colleges.....................................................303
Educational Testing Service: The Final Ossification...........................304
The Success Story................................................................................307
Conclusion: Trends Continue to the Present .....................................308
BIBLIOGRAPHY (click for pdf file)...........................311 to 373