The Input Hypothesis (Krashen 1985)

The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis

· Two types of knowledge about the L2:

o Acquired Knowledge is a gained by the subconscious process of acquisition. It is used to produce language.

o Learned Knowledge is gained by the conscious process of learning. It entails knowing the “rules”, being aware of them and being able to talk about them.

· Learned knowledge can never be converted to Acquired knowledge

Natural Order Hypothesis

· Elements of a language are acquired in a predicable order

· comes from the “morpheme order studies”

Monitor Hypothesis

· The learned system acts as a filter on the speech produced by the acquired system

· There are two conditions for Monitor use (necessary but not sufficient conditions):

o Focus on Form

o Know the rule

Input Hypothesis

· Second languages are acquired by receiving comprehensible input slightly a head of the learner’s current state of knowledge ( i + 1 )

· Only input of i + 1 will activate LAD

“If input is understood, and there is enough of it, the necessary grammar is automatically provided” (p. 2)

· Note that in this theory Speech is not taught, but is a result of acquired knowledge derived from i + 1 type input.

Affective Filter Hypothesis

Affect = motivation, attitude, self-confidence, anxiety

· A raised affective filter can block input from reaching LAD

· A lowered affective filter allows the input to “strike deeper” and be acquired

· The affective filter is responsible for individual variation in SLA

· Note that the affective filter is not an issue for first language acquisition: children don’t have it/use it

Summary: People acquire second languages only if they obtain comprehensible input and if their affective filters are low enough to allow the input ‘in’. (p.3)

Related Issues

The nature of i + 1

· Varies from culture to culture for first language

· Second language learners get it from teacher talk, foreigner talk, or interlangauge talk

The silent period

· Time when the acquired system is developing; it is not able to generate language yet

· Early language production is not from the acquired system: It is a combination of first language syntactic rules and second language vocabulary repaired by the monitor

The Input Hypothesis and Instruction

· Instruction helps when it is the primary source of comprehensible input

· Examples of successful teaching methods which supply lots of comprehensible input

o Total Physical Response (TPR) (Asher)

o Natural Approach (Terrell)

o Immersion programs

Bilingual Education

· Successful bilingual programs provide:

o Solid subject-matter teaching in L1

o Comprehensible input in the target language

· Transfer of Cognitive Academic Language Profiency (CALP) developed in L1 subject teaching to L2

Critiques of the Input Hypothesis

The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis

· Predicts that nothing learned in a formal setting can ever be converted to acquired knowledge

o Other types of knowledge do not have this property, e.g. complicated tasks such as knitting, tying shoes, driving

· Since only the acquired system can produce language, how do we account for language production in a foreign language setting?

· How do we falsify this claim? How do we test the hypothesis that there are two independent systems?

The Monitor Hypothesis

· The monitor is useless in comprehension, only used as a filter in production

o How do learners in a formal setting comprehend anything?

· How can we test the theory when there are no absolute criteria for determining when the Monitor is in use?

Natural Order Hypothesis

· Not all the “morpheme order studies” found the same order

· There was a fair amount of variation

The Input Hypothesis

· How are levels of knowledge defined?

· What is a sufficient quantity?

o Not specified, so not testable

· How does understanding something beyond one’s level translate into acquired knowledge?

o Does this happen immediately upon comprehension

o Not in keeping with the normal understanding of LAD

The Affective Filter Hypothesis

· How does the filter actually function?

o How is the input filtered out? Is it a global or selective filtering?

o What sort of things get filtered and why?

· How can we explain specific knowledge gaps?

o Certain structures are acquired, but others are not