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to morphological context Patterns of phonological development (1st and 2nd language) Patterns of sound change over time6.%#What constitutes explanation?An answer to why? Q: Why do a certain group of sounds pattern together? A: Because they share the same feature. Is this explanation? Does it answer the why in a meaningful way? Or does it just use different terms?4ZZ;&$What constitutes explanation?Phonological explanations with their roots in linguistic structure are circular and, thus non-explanatory. How can we explain linguistic form with linguistic form? True explanation must be sought in non-linguistic domains.&ktkt'% 3Linguistic Explananda Non-Linguistic Explanation >300 (&$TYPES OF NON-LINGUISTIC EXPLANATION %%(General Cognitive Facilities Process of learning Information processing The nature of memory representations Attentional factorsBe$$e )'$TYPES OF NON-LINGUISTIC EXPLANATION %%(kSocial Factors Conditions of language use Goals of linguistic interaction Expectations of the interlocutorB\$$\ *($TYPES OF NON-LINGUISTIC EXPLANATION %%(7Physical Factors Articulatory system Perceptual systemB&$$&  +)EVOLUTIONARY VIEWPOINT Language has evolved under conditions of its use. Language uses the vocal-auditory channel. Language should exhibit adaptation to the vocal-auditory channel. Developmental and adult mechanisms of speech production. Developmental and adult mechanisms of speech perception.*rr,*2Example of production constraint shaping phonology33(Aerodynamic voicing constraint (Ohala) Voicing requires a transglottal pressure drop During a stop closure, air builds up in the oral cavity, eventually the oral cavity air pressure will = subglottal pressure. (i.e. voicing will stop) Transglottal pressure will equalize sooner in a smaller cavity. It is possible to continue voicing by expanding the oral cavity, lowering the larynx, or expanding the pharynx. This costs energy.H'ZZ&uP  w $ -+&Aerodynamic voicing constraint (cont.)''(Voiced stops are more likely to become fricative/glides intervocalically than voiceless stops: Voiceless geminate stops are more common than voiced geminate stops. Languages that have a voicing distinction often lack a voiced velar stop, e.g. Dutch, Thai, Czech (native vocabulary),Z^8.,7Proposal for perception shaping phonology (Kohler 1990)88(Typologically, nasals and stops are more likely to assimilate to the place of a following consonant than other types of consonants are. Kohler proposes that stop and nasal assimilation is a perceptually tolerated place assimilation but that it is articulatory in origin.$    /-0..Kohler s interpretationStops are unreleased and nasal murmurs carry very little place information: Both depend on the preceding formant transitions. Place information for fricatives is in the fricative portion. The peak spectral frequency gives place information.42Distinctive Features Distinctive features are used to capture the patterning of sounds within a language. They should also align with phenomena evidenced in sound change and language acquisition. (U[53English plurals84)Where do Distinctive Features come from? **(,Taxonomist s Answer (Ladefoged): Separate symbol for each phoneme in a language Same symbol should be used for the same/similar sound across languages&!v!v y95)Where do Distinctive Features come from? **(fUniversal Grammarian s Answer (Halle): Linguistic input underdetermines the adult grammar Distinctive features are innate and simply tuned for each language based on minimal input&'':6)Where do Distinctive Features come from? **(Neo-Darwinian answer (Lindblom, McNeilage): Both input and genetic information is insufficient to account for language acquisition Language develops like other complex behavior through an open incomplete genetic program. DF arise through interaction of genes & experience:,, , ;7)Where do Distinctive Features come from? **(.Neo-Darwinian answer (Lindblom, McNeilage) cont: DF are emergents of the self-organization of the phonetic/phonological system minimal pairs give rise self-segmentation into submorphemic units automatic process learning favors a form with a familiar gesture/spectral form over a completely novel one.P1O1O  P  n s<8mJakobson, Fant, & Halle 1951 Preliminaries to Speech analysis: The distinctive features and their correlates.*n O  $`$ & articulatorily, physically, and perceptually, there exists a continuous range of degrees& but only two polar points are picked out as distinctive features (p.9) e.g. The range of variants from whisper to full voicing are divided into the dichotomous scale of voiced and non-voiced  The dichotomous scale is the pivotal principle of the linguistic structure. The code imposes it upon the sound. (p.9)<xxxxIA JFH Features 0JB JFH Features 0?;6Chomsky and Halle (1968) The Sound Pattern of English. 7(( C=Halle (1990, 1992) D>.Are Articulatory or Acoustic Features Better? //( C Cj / __ i JFH C [+sharp] / __ [+vocalic, +diffuse, +acute] CH C [+hi, -back] / __ [+vocalic, +hi, -back] g((( ((-+oE?F@"Coda: review of Hura et al. (1992)##(LCrHura, Lindblom and Diehl (1992) Test of Kohler s Proposal::($,FConsider C1C2 C2C2 assimilation " MD  First Names recorded in the with last name beginning with the same place of articulation (e.g. Shanim Perry). Last Names recorded after Anna (e.g. Anna Perry) so that C2 would have no coarticulation effects. First and last names spliced together creating un-co articulated C1C2 sequences.J!Zi ,_S[NE22 Listeners were asked to identify the first name in each item. 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