In the past, words and graphics could be combined on the printed page in a fashion that was for the most part static and sequential. One could read the words one after the other and look at any illustrations that might accompany the text. In cyberspace, the medium is still two-dimensional, i.e. it is a flat vertical screen of a certain size, but the content and the capability of the medium is dramatically different. There can be words in a fairly sequential format. Newspapers or electronic texts that have been made available on the Internet are clear examples of this format. Many of these texts are archives of past information, and are merely scanned in with the intent of replicating the form and format of printed pages. However, text-only information on a computer or video screen is usually harder to read than paper-based text. Computer-displayed text often lacks the harmony of the physical object that exists on the printed page. The issue of form requires whole new ways of thinking about communication. Information scientists, scientists, artists, and engineers have indeed been working very hard at this challenge. The human eye is capable of registering 150 Mbits of information. A good PC screen registers SMbits; a high end workstation reaches 24Mbits; a 35mmslide registers about 25Mbits; and a large topographic map can register about 150 Mbits. These comparisons have helped designers realize that far more complex information can be visualized simultaneously by the human eye than anyone ever guessed. It also means that the design of information and communication on a computer screen is more complex than is the design for the printed page. I became particularly interested in this topic of visualization and graphical representation of information when I first became aware of the Visible Language Project at MIT (the Massachusetts Institute of Technology). This project, along with many others, has become fairly well known through the work of Nicholas Negroponte, the director of the MIT MediaLab (http://www.media.mit.edu/). The Visible Language Project was developed by a woman named Muriel Cooper with the goal of using computer graphics not as a substitute for text but as a way of making text more meaningful. An interesting example of a project conceived within the Visible Language Project is that created by David Small who devised a way to move interactively through the works of Shakespeare. The experience is somewhat like being in a moving aircraft and flying through a vast amount of information in 3-D (three dimensions) instead of just reading it the old-fashioned way. A similar project developed in this lab is called the "Galaxy of News". One starts out by looking at a few small dots of distant light that resemble starts in a galaxy. As you navigate the mouse towards the dots of light, they grow larger, and eventually turn into words that are subject areas. If you can continue moving into these subject "stars," they emerge into clusters of subtopics within subject areas. This visual and interactive approach to subject headings is one way (there are, or course, others) to create more dynamic hierarchical and customized interfaces for researchers searching information on particular topics. In the sciences, the use of computers for simulation, modeling, and visualization has evolved rapidly over the last decade. For research as well as for teaching, the effect of visualizing complex concepts and data by making data available in three dimensions has been revolutionary. And it is still in the early stages. The process of this visualization is sometimes referred to as "visual thinking." Cognitive science, psychology, and art have all converged in this process. The evolution of information visualization has been furthered by the development of computer hardware and software. Complex multidimensional phenomena and concepts can now be presented graphically. This breakthrough has fascinated and inspired scientists and has changed the way teaching is done in most areas of science in our colleges and universities. Many universities have a site license to software called Mathematica, which can be run over a campus network allowing anyone to log in and use it from remote terminals. The Mathematica software allows the visualization of mathematical concepts through the use of graphical images. A good example of information visualization is that of the U.S. National Institute of Health Molecular Modeling Home Page, (http://molbio.info.nih.gov/modeling), but there are thousands of similar sites on the Intemet. Many of these sites offer free or sample demonstrations that provide three dimensional approaches to concepts in science and technology. Indeed, the human brain is designed to react to three dimensional interactive worlds, and computer simulations and visualizations allow this in ways that paper-based information clearly cannot. New visualization tools allow us to simulate or create three dimensional scenes that are viewable and interactive on a standard desktop PC. Called "virtual reality" worlds, these programs can be accessed with or without head-mounted displays. Creating images for viewing on a computer screen, whether from a CD or from a network, is no mean feat. In order for images to be effective and used accurately by viewers, the creators of graphics must be knowledgeable of design principles. Often image design involves a team approach: individuals from science, engineering, architecture and art as well as individuals from the information sciences. This team approach serves to ensure that different perspectives will help achieve the right harmony of correct and effective design. In addition to software algorithms that often rely on an understanding of physics, geometry, and mathematics, good visualization software requires a heavy expenditure of time and processing. Fortunately, there are many good guides, both in book format and in the form of online help available on the Intemet for designing good Web graphics and images. As a tool for educators, the techniques of visualization and the graphical representation of information provide far greater interactive learning opportunities for students. This approach encourages students to think in three dimensions when they approach a problem. Different variables can be programmed into visual displays so that students must be interactively thinking about what the logical conclusion would be given different facts. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) have been wildly successful in allowing creative visualization and modeling of weather, environmental and physical data to explore new outcomes in all areas of geographical studies. The new technology of scientific visualization can blur the distinction between the natural results of an experiment and the computed result. For objects like molecules, the version that is visualized on screen may be the only version humans have ever seen. One can build the molecule, turn it over, go inside it, and explore new bonding options. These are impossibilities in the natural environment. With the advent of this "virtual reality" approach, the question of computing as truth has, understandably, reached a new level of debate. It is not possible to discuss the graphical representation of information without recognizing the contributions of Edward R. Tufte, a visionary thinker on the subject of graphical information. Tufte has culled the best in informational and visual design from print and electronic sources and has proposed principles for graphical imagery. It is absolutely essential to study Tufte's ideas if one is thinking of developing digital image collections or Web based electronic libraries. Professor Tufte's primary premise is that the world is complex and multidimensional. To envision information requires working at the intersection of image, word, numbers, and art. He discusses the role of empty space in an image, and what it can communicate. He also shows examples of how color and space can make a difference in the information. Many experts in the area of interface design talk about the basic principles that apply to good screen design for users. They have incorporated many of the concepts that Tufte has so carefully elaborated, and they have concluded that "harmony" is probably the most important principle of all. The balance of symmetry and asymmetry, the common understanding of the users screen resolution etc. are all factors in design. (for example, user interface designers agree that currently the target monitor is 800 x 600 pixels, at 256 colors). In addition to the multimedia approach of visualization, there are many new developments on the Intemet that are accelerating the ease of graphics design and use. We are using graphics in ways that were never possible in the past. Netscape allows (and has incorporated as plug-ins to its newer versions) animated pictures in a feature called "Dynamic documents." This allows the connection between the client/server to stay open so that new image data can be continuously uploaded to a Web page. Java is another new development that expands the capability of Web browsers to provide both animation and interactivity to images. Both Netscape and Microsoft Explorer can do Java and animated GIFs. This whole paper could have been devoted to the development of VRML (Virtual Reality Markup Language) showing how all aspects of the graphical representation of information can be combined in three dimensions by generating a virtual space (or world) and then incorporating images and text into a virtual place where the users can move through and interact with information. With the appearance of three dimensional Web browsers, the next phase of graphical representation will be achieved. Many libraries and museums are working hard in the area of visualization. Currently there are many projects in the United States as well as in most other countries, to create virtual spaces that hold hyperlinks to images and text, to archives, and to new information. The museums of Paris (Arts et Metiers, and the Louvre) are noteworthy experiments in visualization as are image projects in the United States such as the Jefferson Project at the University of Virginia. One of the Virginia projects is a walk-through in which one can click on a building to get additional information. Other constructs include an aerial view of the Forum (http://jefferson.village.virginia.edu/ pompeii/forummap.html). The information landscape in cyberspace has changed everything that we thought we knew about writing, publishing, and preserving information from the past. Our challenge is to develop our electronic libraries of the future hand-in-hand with the efforts of other content providers to create a world of rich multidimensional value that will be a dynamic electronic place for global users.

References:

Austakalnis, Steven and Wm. Michael Mott. 1996. "Transforming Teaching and Learning through Visualization." Syllabus 9(6):14-16.

Baigere, Brian S. 1996. Picturing Knowledge: Historical and Philosophical Problems Concerning the Use of Art in Science. Toronto: Univ of Toronto Press.

Bailey, James. 1S96. After thought: The Computer Challenge to Human Intelligence. NY: Basic.

Dubois, J.-E. and N. Gershon, eds. 1996. The Information Revolution: Impact on Science and Technology. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.

Fallows, James. 19S6. "Navigating the Galaxies." Atlantic Monthly April 1996: 104-107.

Howlett, Virginia. 1996. Visual Interface Design for Windows. NY: Wiley.

Tufte, Edward R. 1990. Envisioning Information. Cheshire, Co.: Graphics Press.

Tufte, Edward R. 1983. The Visual Display of Quantitative Information. Cheshire, Co:

Graphics Press.