http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/history_anim.1.i.html

 The History of Animals

By Aristotle

Written 350 B.C.E

Translated by D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson

    

 Part 1

Of the parts of animals some are simple: to wit, all such as divide into  parts uniform with themselves, as flesh into flesh; others are composite, such as divide into parts not uniform with themselves, as, for instance,  the hand does not divide into hands nor the face into  faces.

And of such as these, some are called not parts merely, but limbs  or members. Such are those parts that, while entire in themselves, have within themselves other diverse parts: as for instance, the head, foot,  hand, the arm as a whole, the chest; for these are all in themselves entire parts, and there are other diverse parts belonging to  them.

All those parts that do not subdivide into parts uniform with themselves  are composed of parts that do so subdivide, for instance, hand is composed  of flesh, sinews, and bones. Of animals, some resemble one another in all  their parts, while others have parts wherein they differ. Sometimes the  parts are identical in form or species, as, for instance, one man's nose  or eye resembles another man's nose or eye, flesh flesh, and bone bone;  and in like manner with a horse, and with all other animals which we reckon  to be of one and the same species: for as the whole is to the whole, so  each to each are the parts severally. In other cases the parts are identical,  save only for a difference in the way of excess or defect, as is the case  in such animals as are of one and the same genus. By 'genus' I mean, for  instance, Bird or Fish, for each of these is subject to difference in respect  of its genus, and there are many species of fishes and of  birds.

Within the limits of genera, most of the parts as a rule exhibit  differences through contrast of the property or accident, such as colour  and shape, to which they are subject: in that some are more and some in  a less degree the subject of the same property or accident; and also in  the way of multitude or fewness, magnitude or parvitude, in short in the  way of excess or defect. Thus in some the texture of the flesh is soft,  in others firm; some have a long bill, others a short one; some have abundance  of feathers, others have only a small quantity. It happens further that  some have parts that others have not: for instance, some have spurs and  others not, some have crests and others not; but as a general rule, most  parts and those that go to make up the bulk of the body are either identical  with one another, or differ from one another in the way of contrast and  of excess and defect. For 'the more' and 'the less' may be represented  as 'excess' or 'defect'.

Once again, we may have to do with animals whose parts are neither  identical in form nor yet identical save for differences in the way of excess or defect: but they are the same only in the way of analogy, as,  for instance, bone is only analogous to fish-bone, nail to hoof, hand to claw, and scale to feather; for what the feather is in a bird, the scale  is in a fish.

The parts, then, which animals severally possess are diverse from,  or identical with, one another in the fashion above described. And they  are so furthermore in the way of local disposition: for many animals have  identical organs that differ in position; for instance, some have teats  in the breast, others close to the thighs.

Of the substances that are composed of parts uniform (or homogeneous)  with themselves, some are soft and moist, others are dry and solid. The  soft and moist are such either absolutely or so long as they are in their  natural conditions, as, for instance, blood, serum, lard, suet, marrow,  sperm, gall, milk in such as have it flesh and the like; and also, in a  different way, the superfluities, as phlegm and the excretions of the belly  and the bladder. The dry and solid are such as sinew, skin, vein, hair,  bone, gristle, nail, horn (a term which as applied to the part involves  an ambiguity, since the whole also by virtue of its form is designated  horn), and such parts as present an analogy to these.

Animals differ from one another in their modes of subsistence,  in their actions, in their habits, and in their parts. Concerning these  differences we shall first speak in broad and general terms, and subsequently  we shall treat of the same with close reference to each particular  genus.

Differences are manifested in modes of subsistence, in habits,  in actions performed. For instance, some animals live in water and others  on land. And of those that live in water some do so in one way, and some  in another: that is to say, some live and feed in the water, take in and emit water, and cannot live if deprived of water, as is the case with the  great majority of fishes; others get their food and spend their days in the water, but do not take in water but air, nor do they bring forth in  the water. Many of these creatures are furnished with feet, as the otter, the beaver, and the crocodile; some are furnished with wings, as the diver  and the grebe; some are destitute of feet, as the water-snake. Some creatures  get their living in the water and cannot exist outside it: but for all  that do not take in either air or water, as, for instance, the sea-nettle and the oyster. And of creatures that live in the water some live in the  sea, some in rivers, some in lakes, and some in marshes, as the frog and the newt.

Of animals that live on dry land some take in air and emit it,  which phenomena are termed 'inhalation' and 'exhalation'; as, for instance,  man and all such land animals as are furnished with lungs. Others, again,  do not inhale air, yet live and find their sustenance on dry land; as,  for instance, the wasp, the bee, and all other insects. And by 'insects'  I mean such creatures as have nicks or notches on their bodies, either  on their bellies or on both backs and bellies.

And of land animals many, as has been said, derive their subsistence  from the water; but of creatures that live in and inhale water not a single one derives its subsistence from dry land.

Some animals at first live in water, and by and by change their  shape and live out of water, as is the case with river worms, for out of  these the gadfly develops.

Furthermore, some animals are stationary, and some are erratic.  Stationary animals are found in water, but no such creature is found on  dry land. In the water are many creatures that live in close adhesion to  an external object, as is the case with several kinds of oyster. And, by  the way, the sponge appears to be endowed with a certain sensibility: as  a proof of which it is alleged that the difficulty in detaching it from  its moorings is increased if the movement to detach it be not covertly  applied.

Other creatures adhere at one time to an object and detach themselves  from it at other times, as is the case with a species of the so-called  sea-nettle; for some of these creatures seek their food in the night-time  loose and unattached.

Many creatures are unattached but motionless, as is the case with  oysters and the so-called holothuria. Some can swim, as, for instance,  fishes, molluscs, and crustaceans, such as the crawfish. But some of these  last move by walking, as the crab, for it is the nature of the creature, though it lives in water, to move by walking.

Of land animals some are furnished with wings, such as birds and  bees, and these are so furnished in different ways one from another; others are furnished with feet. Of the animals that are furnished with feet some  walk, some creep, and some wriggle. But no creature is able only to move  by flying, as the fish is able only to swim, for the animals with leathern  wings can walk; the bat has feet and the seal has imperfect  feet.

Some birds have feet of little power, and are therefore called  Apodes. This little bird is powerful on the wing; and, as a rule, birds  that resemble it are weak-footed and strong winged, such as the swallow  and the drepanis or (?) Alpine swift; for all these birds resemble one another in their habits and in their plumage, and may easily be mistaken  one for another. (The apus is to be seen at all seasons, but the drepanis  only after rainy weather in summer; for this is the time when it is seen  and captured, though, as a general rule, it is a rare  bird.)

Again, some animals move by walking on the ground as well as by  swimming in water.

Furthermore, the following differences are manifest in their modes  of living and in their actions. Some are gregarious, some are solitary, whether they be furnished with feet or wings or be fitted for a life in  the water; and some partake of both characters, the solitary and the gregarious.  And of the gregarious, some are disposed to combine for social purposes,  others to live each for its own self.

Gregarious creatures are, among birds, such as the pigeon, the  crane, and the swan; and, by the way, no bird furnished with crooked talons  is gregarious. Of creatures that live in water many kinds of fishes are  gregarious, such as the so-called migrants, the tunny, the pelamys, and  the bonito.

Man, by the way, presents a mixture of the two characters, the  gregarious and the solitary.

Social creatures are such as have some one common object in view;  and this property is not common to all creatures that are gregarious. Such social creatures are man, the bee, the wasp, the ant, and the  crane.

Again, of these social creatures some submit to a ruler, others  are subject to no governance: as, for instance, the crane and the several  sorts of bee submit to a ruler, whereas ants and numerous other creatures  are every one his own master.

And again, both of gregarious and of solitary animals, some are  attached to a fixed home and others are erratic or nomad.

Also, some are carnivorous, some graminivorous, some omnivorous:  whilst some feed on a peculiar diet, as for instance the bees and the spiders,  for the bee lives on honey and certain other sweets, and the spider lives  by catching flies; and some creatures live on fish. Again, some creatures  catch their food, others treasure it up; whereas others do not  so.

Some creatures provide themselves with a dwelling, others go without  one: of the former kind are the mole, the mouse, the ant, the bee; of the latter kind are many insects and quadrupeds. Further, in respect to locality  of dwelling place, some creatures dwell under ground, as the lizard and  the snake; others live on the surface of the ground, as the horse and the  dog. make to themselves holes, others do not

Some are nocturnal, as the owl and the bat; others live in the  daylight.

Moreover, some creatures are tame and some are wild: some are at  all times tame, as man and the mule; others are at all times savage, as  the leopard and the wolf; and some creatures can be rapidly tamed, as the  elephant.

Again, we may regard animals in another light. For, whenever a  race of animals is found domesticated, the same is always to be found in  a wild condition; as we find to be the case with horses, kine, swine, (men),  sheep, goats, and dogs.

Further, some animals emit sound while others are mute, and some  are endowed with voice: of these latter some have articulate speech, while others are inarticulate; some are given to continual chirping and twittering  some are prone to silence; some are musical, and some unmusical; but all  animals without exception exercise their power of singing or chattering  chiefly in connexion with the intercourse of the sexes.

Again, some creatures live in the fields, as the cushat; some on  the mountains, as the hoopoe; some frequent the abodes of men, as the  pigeon.

 Some, again, are peculiarly salacious, as the partridge, the barn-door  cock and their congeners; others are inclined to chastity, as the whole tribe of crows, for birds of this kind indulge but rarely in sexual  intercourse.

Of marine animals, again, some live in the open seas, some near  the shore, some on rocks.

Furthermore, some are combative under offence; others are provident  for defence. Of the former kind are such as act as aggressors upon others  or retaliate when subjected to ill usage, and of the latter kind are such  as merely have some means of guarding themselves against attack.

Animals also differ from one another in regard to character in  the following respects. Some are good-tempered, sluggish, and little prone  to ferocity, as the ox; others are quick tempered, ferocious and unteachable,  as the wild boar; some are intelligent and timid, as the stag and the hare;  others are mean and treacherous, as the snake; others are noble and courageous  and high-bred, as the lion; others are thorough-bred and wild and treacherous,  as the wolf: for, by the way, an animal is highbred if it come from a noble  stock, and an animal is thorough-bred if it does not deflect from its racial  characteristics.

Further, some are crafty and mischievous, as the fox; some are  spirited and affectionate and fawning, as the dog; others are easy-tempered  and easily domesticated, as the elephant; others are cautious and watchful,  as the goose; others are jealous and self-conceited, as the peacock. But of all animals man alone is capable of deliberation.

Many animals have memory, and are capable of instruction; but no  other creature except man can recall the past at will.

With regard to the several genera of animals, particulars as to  their habits of life and modes of existence will be discussed more fully  by and by.

Part 2

 Common to all animals are the organs whereby they take food and  the organs where into they take it; and these are either identical with  one another, or are diverse in the ways above specified: to wit, either  identical in form, or varying in respect of excess or defect, or resembling  one another analogically, or differing in position.

Furthermore, the great majority of animals have other organs besides  these in common, whereby they discharge the residuum of their food: I say,  the great majority, for this statement does not apply to all. And, by the  way, the organ whereby food is taken in is called the mouth, and the organ  whereinto it is taken, the belly; the remainder of the alimentary system  has a great variety of names.

Now the residuum of food is twofold in kind, wet and dry, and such  creatures as have organs receptive of wet residuum are invariably found with organs receptive of dry residuum; but such as have organs receptive  of dry residuum need not possess organs receptive of wet residuum. In other  words, an animal has a bowel or intestine if it have a bladder; but an  animal may have a bowel and be without a bladder. And, by the way, I may  here remark that the organ receptive of wet residuum is termed 'bladder',  and the organ receptive of dry residuum 'intestine or 'bowel'.

Part 3

 Of animals otherwise, a great many have, besides the organs above-mentioned,  an organ for excretion of the sperm: and of animals capable of generation  one secretes into another, and the other into itself. The latter is termed  'female', and the former 'male'; but some animals have neither male nor  female. Consequently, the organs connected with this function differ in  form, for some animals have a womb and others an organ analogous  thereto.

The above-mentioned organs, then, are the most indispensable parts  of animals; and with some of them all animals without exception, and with  others animals for the most part, must needs be provided.

One sense, and one alone, is common to all animals-the sense of  touch. Consequently, there is no special name for the organ in which it  has its seat; for in some groups of animals the organ is identical, in  others it is only analogous.

Part 4

 Every animal is supplied with moisture, and, if the animal be deprived  of the same by natural causes or artificial means, death ensues: further, every animal has another part in which the moisture is contained. These  parts are blood and vein, and in other animals there is something to correspond;  but in these latter the parts are imperfect, being merely fibre and serum  or lymph.

Touch has its seat in a part uniform and homogeneous, as in the  flesh or something of the kind, and generally, with animals supplied with blood, in the parts charged with blood. In other animals it has its seat  in parts analogous to the parts charged with blood; but in all cases it  is seated in parts that in their texture are homogeneous.

The active faculties, on the contrary, are seated in the parts  that are heterogeneous: as, for instance, the business of preparing the  food is seated in the mouth, and the office of locomotion in the feet,  the wings, or in organs to correspond.

Again, some animals are supplied with blood, as man, the horse,  and all such animals as are, when full-grown, either destitute of feet,  or two-footed, or four-footed; other animals are bloodless, such as the  bee and the wasp, and, of marine animals, the cuttle-fish, the crawfish,  and all such animals as have more than four feet.

Part 5

 Again, some animals are viviparous, others oviparous, others vermiparous  or 'grub-bearing'. Some are viviparous, such as man, the horse, the seal,  and all other animals that are hair-coated, and, of marine animals, the  cetaceans, as the dolphin, and the so-called Selachia. (Of these latter  animals, some have a tubular air-passage and no gills, as the dolphin and  the whale: the dolphin with the air-passage going through its back, the  whale with the air-passage in its forehead; others have uncovered gills,  as the Selachia, the sharks and rays.)

What we term an egg is a certain completed result of conception  out of which the animal that is to be develops, and in such a way that  in respect to its primitive germ it comes from part only of the egg, while  the rest serves for food as the germ develops. A 'grub' on the other hand is a thing out of which in its entirety the animal in its entirety develops,  by differentiation and growth of the embryo.

Of viviparous animals, some hatch eggs in their own interior, as  creatures of the shark kind; others engender in their interior a live foetus,  as man and the horse. When the result of conception is perfected, with  some animals a living creature is brought forth, with others an egg is brought to light, with others a grub. Of the eggs, some have egg-shells  and are of two different colours within, such as birds' eggs; others are soft-skinned and of uniform colour, as the eggs of animals of the shark  kind. Of the grubs, some are from the first capable of movement, others  are motionless. However, with regard to these phenomena we shall speak  precisely hereafter when we come to treat of Generation.

Furthermore, some animals have feet and some are destitute thereof.  Of such as have feet some animals have two, as is the case with men and birds, and with men and birds only; some have four, as the lizard and the  dog; some have more, as the centipede and the bee; but allsoever that have  feet have an even number of them.

Of swimming creatures that are destitute of feet, some have winglets  or fins, as fishes: and of these some have four fins, two above on the back, two below on the belly, as the gilthead and the basse; some have  two only,-to wit, such as are exceedingly long and smooth, as the eel and  the conger; some have none at all, as the muraena, but use the sea just  as snakes use dry ground-and by the way, snakes swim in water in just the  same way. Of the shark-kind some have no fins, such as those that are flat  and long-tailed, as the ray and the sting-ray, but these fishes swim actually  by the undulatory motion of their flat bodies; the fishing frog, however,  has fins, and so likewise have all such fishes as have not their flat surfaces  thinned off to a sharp edge.

Of those swimming creatures that appear to have feet, as is the  case with the molluscs, these creatures swim by the aid of their feet and  their fins as well, and they swim most rapidly backwards in the direction  of the trunk, as is the case with the cuttle-fish or sepia and the calamary; and, by the way, neither of these latter can walk as the poulpe or octopus  can.

The hard-skinned or crustaceous animals, like the crawfish, swim  by the instrumentality of their tail-parts; and they swim most rapidly  tail foremost, by the aid of the fins developed upon that member. The newt  swims by means of its feet and tail; and its tail resembles that of the sheatfish, to compare little with great.

Of animals that can fly some are furnished with feathered wings,  as the eagle and the hawk; some are furnished with membranous wings, as the bee and the cockchafer; others are furnished with leathern wings, as  the flying fox and the bat. All flying creatures possessed of blood have  feathered wings or leathern wings; the bloodless creatures have membranous  wings, as insects. The creatures that have feathered wings or leathern  wings have either two feet or no feet at all: for there are said to be  certain flying serpents in Ethiopia that are destitute of  feet.

Creatures that have feathered wings are classed as a genus under  the name of 'bird'; the other two genera, the leathern-winged and membrane-winged,  are as yet without a generic title.

Of creatures that can fly and are bloodless some are coleopterous  or sheath-winged, for they have their wings in a sheath or shard, like  the cockchafer and the dung-beetle; others are sheathless, and of these  latter some are dipterous and some tetrapterous: tetrapterous, such as  are comparatively large or have their stings in the tail, dipterous, such  as are comparatively small or have their stings in front. The coleoptera  are, without exception, devoid of stings; the diptera have the sting in  front, as the fly, the horsefly, the gadfly, and the  gnat.

Bloodless animals as a general rule are inferior in point of size  to blooded animals; though, by the way, there are found in the sea some  few bloodless creatures of abnormal size, as in the case of certain molluscs.  And of these bloodless genera, those are the largest that dwell in milder  climates, and those that inhabit the sea are larger than those living on  dry land or in fresh water.

All creatures that are capable of motion move with four or more  points of motion; the blooded animals with four only: as, for instance,  man with two hands and two feet, birds with two wings and two feet, quadrupeds  and fishes severally with four feet and four fins. Creatures that have  two winglets or fins, or that have none at all like serpents, move all  the same with not less than four points of motion; for there are four bends  in their bodies as they move, or two bends together with their fins. Bloodless  and many footed animals, whether furnished with wings or feet, move with  more than four points of motion; as, for instance, the dayfly moves with  four feet and four wings: and, I may observe in passing, this creature  is exceptional not only in regard to the duration of its existence, whence  it receives its name, but also because though a quadruped it has wings  also.

All animals move alike, four-footed and many-footed; in other words,  they all move cross-corner-wise. And animals in general have two feet in  advance; the crab alone has four.

Part 6

 Very extensive genera of animals, into which other subdivisions  fall, are the following: one, of birds; one, of fishes; and another, of  cetaceans. Now all these creatures are blooded.

There is another genus of the hard-shell kind, which is called  oyster; another of the soft-shell kind, not as yet designated by a single  term, such as the spiny crawfish and the various kinds of crabs and lobsters;  and another of molluscs, as the two kinds of calamary and the cuttle-fish;  that of insects is different. All these latter creatures are bloodless,  and such of them as have feet have a goodly number of them; and of the  insects some have wings as well as feet.

Of the other animals the genera are not extensive. For in them  one species does not comprehend many species; but in one case, as man,  the species is simple, admitting of no differentiation, while other cases  admit of differentiation, but the forms lack particular  designations.

So, for instance, creatures that are qudapedal and unprovided with  wings are blooded without exception, but some of them are viviparous, and  some oviparous. Such as are viviparous are hair-coated, and such as are  oviparous are covered with a kind of tessellated hard substance; and the  tessellated bits of this substance are, as it were, similar in regard to  position to a scale.

An animal that is blooded and capable of movement on dry land,  but is naturally unprovided with feet, belongs to the serpent genus; and animals of this genus are coated with the tessellated horny substance.  Serpents in general are oviparous; the adder, an exceptional case, is viviparous:  for not all viviparous animals are hair-coated, and some fishes also are  viviparous.

All animals, however, that are hair-coated are viviparous. For,  by the way, one must regard as a kind of hair such prickly hairs as hedgehogs and porcupines carry; for these spines perform the office of hair, and  not of feet as is the case with similar parts of sea-urchins.

In the genus that combines all viviparous quadrupeds are many species,  but under no common appellation. They are only named as it were one by  one, as we say man, lion, stag, horse, dog, and so on; though, by the way,  there is a sort of genus that embraces all creatures that have bushy manes  and bushy tails, such as the horse, the ass, the mule, the jennet, and  the animals that are called Hemioni in Syria,-from their externally resembling  mules, though they are not strictly of the same species. And that they  are not so is proved by the fact that they mate with and breed from one  another. For all these reasons, we must take animals species by species,  and discuss their peculiarities severally'

These preceding statements, then, have been put forward thus in  a general way, as a kind of foretaste of the number of subjects and of  the properties that we have to consider in order that we may first get  a clear notion of distinctive character and common properties. By and by  we shall discuss these matters with greater minuteness.

After this we shall pass on to the discussion of causes. For to  do this when the investigation of the details is complete is the proper  and natural method, and that whereby the subjects and the premisses of  our argument will afterwards be rendered plain.

In the first place we must look to the constituent parts of animals.  For it is in a way relative to these parts, first and foremost, that animals  in their entirety differ from one another: either in the fact that some  have this or that, while they have not that or this; or by peculiarities  of position or of arrangement; or by the differences that have been previously  mentioned, depending upon diversity of form, or excess or defect in this  or that particular, on analogy, or on contrasts of the accidental  qualities.

To begin with, we must take into consideration the parts of Man.  For, just as each nation is wont to reckon by that monetary standard with which it is most familiar, so must we do in other matters. And, of course,  man is the animal with which we are all of us the most  familiar.

Now the parts are obvious enough to physical perception. However,  with the view of observing due order and sequence and of combining rational  notions with physical perception, we shall proceed to enumerate the parts:  firstly, the organic, and afterwards the simple or non-composite.

Part 7

 The chief parts into which the body as a whole is subdivided, are  the head, the neck, the trunk (extending from the neck to the privy parts), which is called the thorax, two arms and two legs.

Of the parts of which the head is composed the hair-covered portion  is called the 'skull'. The front portion of it is termed 'bregma' or 'sinciput', developed after birth-for it is the last of all the bones in the body to  acquire solidity,-the hinder part is termed the 'occiput', and the part intervening between the sinciput and the occiput is the 'crown'. The brain  lies underneath the sinciput; the occiput is hollow. The skull consists  entirely of thin bone, rounded in shape, and contained within a wrapper  of fleshless skin.

The skull has sutures: one, of circular form, in the case of women;  in the case of men, as a general rule, three meeting at a point. Instances have been known of a man's skull devoid of suture altogether. In the skull  the middle line, where the hair parts, is called the crown or vertex. In  some cases the parting is double; that is to say, some men are double crowned,  not in regard to the bony skull, but in consequence of the double fall  or set of the hair.

Part 8

 The part that lies under the skull is called the 'face': but in  the case of man only, for the term is not applied to a fish or to an ox.  In the face the part below the sinciput and between the eyes is termed  the forehead. When men have large foreheads, they are slow to move; when  they have small ones, they are fickle; when they have broad ones, they  are apt to be distraught; when they have foreheads rounded or bulging out,  they are quick-tempered.

Part 9

 Underneath the forehead are two eyebrows. Straight eyebrows are  a sign of softness of disposition; such as curve in towards the nose, of harshness; such as curve out towards the temples, of humour and dissimulation;  such as are drawn in towards one another, of jealousy.

Under the eyebrows come the eyes. These are naturally two in number.  Each of them has an upper and a lower eyelid, and the hairs on the edges  of these are termed 'eyelashes'. The central part of the eye includes the  moist part whereby vision is effected, termed the 'pupil', and the part  surrounding it called the 'black'; the part outside this is the 'white'.  A part common to the upper and lower eyelid is a pair of nicks or corners,  one in the direction of the nose, and the other in the direction of the  temples. When these are long they are a sign of bad disposition; if the  side toward the nostril be fleshy and comb-like, they are a sign of  dishonesty.

All animals, as a general rule, are provided with eyes, excepting  the ostracoderms and other imperfect creatures; at all events, all viviparous animals have eyes, with the exception of the mole. And yet one might assert  that, though the mole has not eyes in the full sense, yet it has eyes in  a kind of a way. For in point of absolute fact it cannot see, and has no  eyes visible externally; but when the outer skin is removed, it is found  to have the place where eyes are usually situated, and the black parts  of the eyes rightly situated, and all the place that is usually devoted  on the outside to eyes: showing that the parts are stunted in development,  and the skin allowed to grow over.